HANDWORK  IN 
WOOD 


®y  WILLIAM  NO  YES,  M.  A. 

Assistant  Professor.  Department  of  Industrial  Arts, 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 

NEW  YORK  CITY 


THE  MANUAL  ARTS  PRESS 
PEORIA,  ILLINOIS 


„ 

t 


COPYRIGHT 

WILLIAM  NOYES 

1910 

SECOND  EDITION,  1911 
THIRD  EDITION,  1912 


?  students 
past  present  ano  future 

a  token  of  gratitude 
for  help  an&  inspiration 


238841 


FOREWORD 

This  book  is  intended  primarily  for  teachers  of  woodwork,  but  the 
author  hopes  that  there  will  also  be  other  workers  in  wood,  profes- 
sional and  amateur,  who  will  find  in  it  matter  of  interest  and  profit. 

The  successful  completion  of  the  book  is  due  chiefly  to  the  un- 
tiring assistance  of  my  wife,  Anna  Gausmann  Noyes,  who  has  made 
almost  all  of  the  drawings,  corrected  the  text,  read .  the  proof,  and 
attended  to  numberless  details. 

Acknowledgments  are  hereby  thankfully  given  for  corrections  and 
suggestions  in  the  text  made  by  the  following  persons : 

Mr.  Chas.  W.  Weick  of  Teachers  College,  and  Mr.  W.  F.  Vroom 
of  Public  School  No.  5,  of  New  York  City,  for  revision  of  Chapters 
IV  and  V  on  tools  and  fastenings. 

Mr.  Clinton  S.  VanDeusen  of  Bradley  Polytechnic  Institute,  for 
revision  of  Chapter  X  on  wood  finishing. 

The  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C.  for  the  originals  of  Figs. 
1,  2,  3,  5,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  13,  17,  18,  21,  22,  23,  34,  26,  27, 
28,  29,  31,  33,  and  54. 

The  New  York  State  Forest  Fish  and  Game  Commission  for  the 
originals  of  Figs.  12,  14,  15,  and  47. 

T.  H.  McAllister  of  New  York  for  the  originals  of  Figs.  16  and  20. 

The  Detroit  Publishing  Company  for  the  original  of  Fig.  6. 

The  B.  F.  Sturtevant  Company,  Hyde  Park,  Mass.,  for  the  orig- 
inal of  Fig.  57. 

Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.  for  the  original  of  Fig.  30. 

Mr.  William  H.  Cochrane,  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  for  the  clamping 
device  shown  in  Fig.  255. 

Sargent  &  Company,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  for  electrotypes  of  Figs. 
193,  194,  196,  and  197;  W.  C.  Toles  &  Company,  Chicago,  111.,  for 
electrotype  of  Fig.  168;  The  Berlin  Machine  Works,  Beloit,  Wis.,  for 
electrotype  of  Fig.  35;  A.  A.  Loetscher,  Dubuque,  Iowa,  for  electro- 
type of  Fig.  259 ;  and  the  Stanley  Rule  and  Level  Co.,  New  Britain, 
Conn.,  for  electrotype  of  Fig.  117. 


Allis  Chalmers  Company,  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  Clark  Brothers,  Bel- 
mont,  N".  Y.,  The  M.  Garland  Company,  Bay  City,  Mich.,  The  Pres- 
cott  Company,  Menominee,  Mich.,  for  illustrations  of  sawmilling 
machinery. 

And  most  of  all,  I  wish  to  acknowledge  my  obligation  to  the  nu- 
merous writers  of  whose  books  and  articles  I  have  made  free  use,  to 
which  references  are  made  in  the  appropriate  places. 


CONTEXTS. 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

General  Bibliography .  4 

I     Logging 7 

II     Sawmilling 30 

III  The  Seasoning  and  Measuring  of  Wood     ....  45 

IV  Wood  Hand  Tools 51 

V     Wood  Fastenings 123 

VI     Equipment  and  Care  of  the  Shop 136 

VII  The  Common  Joints 151 

VIII  Types  of  Wooden  Structures 183 

IX     Principles  of  Joinery 203 

X     Wood  Finishing 209 

Index  224 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Adams,  Henry,  Joints  in  Wood-Work.     London:  60  Queen  Victoria  St.     1894. 

Alexander,  Jerome,  The  Grading  and  Use  of  Glue.  Wood  Craft,  5:  168,  Sep.  '06. 

Bailey,  Charles  H.,  A  Study  of  Manual  Training  Equipments.  Manual  Train- 
ing Magazine,  6:82.  Jan.  '05. 

Barnard,  Charles,  Tools  and  Machines.    N.  Y.:  Silver,  Burdett  and  Co.     1903. 

Barter,  S.  M.,  Woodwork.     London:   Whittaker  and  Co.     1892. 

Benson,  W.  A.  S.,  Elements  of  Handicraft  and  Design.  London:  Macmillan 
and  Co.  1893.^ 

Brannt,  W.  T.,  Painter,  Gilder  and  Varnisher.  Philadelphia:  H.  C.  Baird 
&  Co.  1893. 

Brimcken,  Ernest,  North  American  Forests  and  Forestry  N.  Y. :  G.  P.  Put- 
nam's Sons.  1899. 

Clark,  R.  I.,  Varnish  and  Fossil  Remains.  London:  Chas.  Letts  &  Co.  No 
date. 

Compton,  A.  G.,  First  Lessons  in  Woodworking.  N.  Y. :  Ivison,  Blakeman, 
Taylor  and  Co.  1888. 

Crawshaw,  Fred  D.,  Problems  in  Furniture  Making.  Peoria,  111.:  The  Man- 
ual Arts  Press.  1906. 

Disston,  Henry,  and  Sons,  Handbook  for  Lumbermen.     Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Dunlap,  Frederick,  Kiln-drying  Hardwood  Lumber.  Wood  Craft,  6:  133, 
Feb.  '07. 

Ellis,  George,  Modern  Practical  Joinery.  London:  B.  T.  Batsford,  486  pp., 
1902,  '03,  '04  and  '07. 

Encyclopedia  Britannica,  Lac,  Varnish.     N.  Y. :     Scribner's.     1878. 

Foster,  Edwin  W.,  Elementary  Woodworking.     Boston:      Ginn  and  Co. 

Goss,  W.  F.  M.,  Bench  Work  in  Wood.    Boston:    Ginn  and  Co.    1887  and  1905. 

Griffith,  Ira  S.,  Essentials  of  Woodworking.  Peoria  111.:  Manual  Arts  Press. 
1908. 

Hammacher,  Schlemmer  &  Co.,  Tools.     Catalog  No.  355.     N.  Y.     1908. 

Hammacher  Schlemmer  &  Co.,  Cabinet  Hardware.  Catalog  No.  151.  N.  Y. 
1904. 

Hodgson,  Fred  T.,  The  Up-to-date  Hardwood  Finisher.  Chicago:  Fred  J. 
Drake  and  Co.  1904. 

Hodgson  Fred  T.  The  Carpenter's  Steel  Square  and  Its  Uses.  N.  Y.:  In- 
dustrial Publishing  Co.  1880. 

Hovey-King,  Alvin,  The  Lumber  Industry  of  the  Pacific  Coast.  Review  of 
Reviews.  27:  317,  Mr.,  '03. 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY.  5 

Hulbert,  W.  H.,  The  Lumber  Jack  and  His  Job.    Outlook,  76:  801,  Ap.  2,  '04. 
International     Correspondence     School,     The     Building     Trades     Pocketbook. 

Scranton,  Pa.     International  Textbook  Co.     2nd  edition.     1905. 
International   Encyclopedia,   Lac-Insect,    Varnish.     N.   Y.:    Dodd,   Mead   and 

Co.     1902-1904. 

Jones.  J.  E.,  Lumbering  in  the  Northwest.     Cosmopolitan,  15:   63,  May  1893. 
Larsson.  Gustaf,  Elementary  Sloyd  and  Whittling.     N.  Y.:  Silver,  Burdett  & 

Co.      1906. 
Maire,    F.,    The    Modern    Wood   Finisher.      Chicago:    Press    of    the    Western 

Painter. 
Munn,  M.  J.,  Great  Industries  of  the  U.  8. — Lumber.     Cosmopolitan,  37:  441, 

Aug.  '04. 
Murray,    M.    W.,    Problems   in    Wood-working.      Peoria,    111.:    Manual    Arts 

Press.     1905. 
Murray,  M.  W.,  The  Manual  Training  Room  and  Its  Equipment.     Year  Book 

of  the  Council  of  Supervisors  for  1906.     pp.  69-86. 
Park.    Joseph    C.      Educational   Woodworking   for    School   and   Home.      The 

Macmillan  Co.,  1908. 
Pinchot,   Gifford,  A   Primer  of  Forestry.     Parts   I   and   II,   U.   S.   Dept.   of 

Agric.  For.  Serv.  Bull.  No.  24.     1899  and  1905. 

Purfield,  H.  T.,  The  Length  of  Nails.     Wood  Craft,  5:    181,  Sp.  '06 
Rivingston,  see  South  Kensington  Council  on  Education. 

Rouillion,  Louis.     Econom-ics   of  Manual  Training.     N.  Y. :    The  Derry  Col- 
lard  Company.     1905. 

Roth,  Filibert,  A  First  Book  of  Forestry.     Boston:  Ginn  &  Co.     1902. 
Sargent  &  Co.,  Standard  Steel  Squares.     New  Haven,  Conn. 
Sea  ton,  Geo.   A.,   A    Clamp  for  Use  at  the  Grindstone.     Woodcraft,  6:    96. 

Jan.,  '07. 

Selden,  F.  H.,  Elementary  Woodwork.     N.  Y.:   Rand,  McNally  &  Co.     1906. 
Sickels,  Ivin,  Exercises  in  Woodworking.     N.  Y.:  D.  Appleton  &  Co.     1889. 
Smith,  K.,  Lumbering  by  Machinery.     World's  Work,  7:  4435,  Feb.  '04. 
Smith,  R.  H.,  Cutting  Tools.     London:  Cassell  &  Co.     1884. 
South   Kensington    Council   on   Education,    Notes   on   Building    Construction. 

3  vols.     London:    Rivington.     1883-1889. 
Standage,  H.  C.,   Glues  and  Cements  for  the   Use  of  Woodworkers.     Wood 

Craft,  7 :  48,  May,  '07. 
Tate.    James   M.,    Training   in   Wood    Work.     Minneapolis:    North    Western 

School  Supply  Co.     About  1905. 
Trout,  W.  H.,  The  Modern  Saw  Mill.     Cassier's  Magazine,  11:   83-95,  184-195, 

Dec.  '96  and  Jan.  '97. 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Forest  Service  Classified  List  of  Publications. 
Forest  Service  Bulletins: 

No.  10.  Filibert,  Roth,  Timber.     1895. 

No.  34.  Wm.  F.  Fox,  A  History  of  the  Lumber  Industry  in  the  State  of 
New  York,  1902. 

No.  41.  Hermann  von  Schrenk,  Seasoning  of  Timber.     1903. 


6  HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 

Van  Deusen,  Clinton  S.,  Methods  of  Wood  Finishing.     Manual  Training  Mag- 

azin€,  6:   93.     Jan.  '05. 
Van  Deusen,  Clinton  S.,  Logging  in  the  South.     Manual  Training  Magazine, 

1:   93.     Jan.  '00. 
Wells,  Percy  A.,  and  Hooper,  John,  Modern  Cabinet  Work,  New  York,  John 

Lane,    1909. 
Wheeler,  C.  G.,  Woodworking  for  Beginners.     N.  Y.:    G.  P.  Putnam's   Sons. 

1899. 
White,  Stewart  Edward,  The  Blazed  Trail.     N.  Y.:  McClure,  Phillips  &  Co. 

1904. 
White,    Stewart  Edward,  From  Forest   to   Saw   Mill.     Junior   Munsey,    10: 

362,   Je.   '01. 
Anonymous. 

Nails.     Wood  Craft.     5:   103,  Jl.  '06. 

A  Dry -Kiln  of  Progressive  Style.     Wood  Craft,  6:   31,  Nov.  '06. 
Lumbering  in  Louisiana.     Wood  Craft,  4:   55,  Nov.  '05. 
The  Lac  Industry  of  Assam,  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts.     49:   192.     Feb. 

8,  '01. 


CHAPTER  I. 
LOGGING. 

*The  rough  and  ready  methods  common  in  American  logging  op- 
erations are  the  result  partly  of  a  tradition  of  inexhaustible  supply, 
partly  of  the  fear  of  fire  and  the  avoidance  of  taxes,  partly  of  an 
eagerness  to  get  rich  quick.  Most  of  the  logging  has  been  done  on 
privately  owned  land  or  on  shamelessly  stolen  public  land,  and  the 
lumberman  had  no  further  interest  in  the  forest  than  to  lumber  it 
expeditiously. 

Preliminary  to  the  actual  logging  are  certain  necessary  steps. 
First  of  all  is  landlooking.  This  includes  the  survey  of  the  forest 


Fig-.  1.  Making-  a  Valuation  Survey 

land  for  the  purpose  of  locating  good  timber.  Fig.  1.  Most  of  the 
woodland  has  previously  been  roughly  surveyed  by  the  government 
and  maps  made  indicating  which  parts  are  private  land  and  which 
are  still  held  by  the  government.  The  boundaries  of  townships,  sec- 
tions, quarter  sections,  eighties,  forties,  etc.,  are  indicated  by  "blazes" 

*See  the  author's  Wood  and  Forest,  pp.  251-270  for  a  discussion  of  the 
causes  of  destructive  lumbering  in  America. 

7 


8 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


on  trees,  Fig.  2,  so  that  the  "cruiser''  or  "looker"  as  he  goes  thru  the 
woods  can  identify  them  with  those  on  his  oil  paper  map.  The  cruiser 

also  studies  the  kinds  and  char- 
acter of  the  trees,  the  contour  of 
the  ground,  the  proximity  to 
streams, — all  with  the  view  to 
marketing  the  product.  Acting 
on  the  information  thus  gained 
by  the  cruiser,  the  lumberman, 
purchases  his  sections  at  tfye 
proper  land  office,  or  if  he  is 
less  scrupulous,  buys  only 
enough  to  serve  as  a  basis  for 
operations.  Enormous  fortunes' 
have  been  made  by  timber 
thieves,  now  respectable  mem- 
bers of  the  community.  As  a  fur- 
ther preliminary  step  to  lum- 
bering itself,  the  tote  road  and 
camp  are  built.  The  tote  road 
is  a  rough  road  on  which  sup- 
plies for  crew  and  cattle  can  be 
taken  to  camp  from  civilization. 


Fig.  2 


on  Trees. 


It  is  barely  passable  for  a  team  and  a  wagon,  but  it  serves  its  purpose,  and 
over  it  come  more  men  and  horses,  lumber  for  the  floors  and  roofs  of  the  shan- 
ties and  for  the  rude  pieces  of  furniture  that  will  be  needed,  tarred  paper  to 
make  the  roofs  tight,  a  few  glazed  window  sashes,  a  huge  range  and  a 
number  of  box  stoves,  dishes  and  kitchen  utensils,  a  little  stock  of  goods 
for  the  van,  blankets  by  the  dozen  and  score,  and  countless  boxes  and  bar- 
rels and  bags  of  provisions.1 

The  camp  itself,  Fig.  3,  is  built  of  logs,  roofed  with  plank,  cov- 
ered with  heavy  tar  paper,  and  dimly  lighted.  There  are  usually 
five  buildings, — the  men's  camp,  the  cook  camp,  the  office,  the  barn, 
and  the  blacksmith's  shop.  Many  camps  accommodate  from  eighty 
to  one  hundred  men.  The  men's  camp  is  filled  with  bunks  and  is 
heated  by  a  stove  and  in  general  roughly  furnished.  Cooking  and 
eating  are  done  in  the  cook  camp,  where  the  cook  and  his  assistant, 
the  "cookee,"  sleep.  The  office  is  occupied  by  the  foreman,  log-scal- 

'Hulbert:  The  Lumber  Jack;  Outlook,  76:  801,  April  2,  '04. 


LOGGING. 


ers  and  clerks.  Here  the  books  and  accounts  are  kept,  and  here  is 
the  "van,"  stocked  with  such  goods  as  will  supply  the  immediate 
needs  of  the  lumber  jacks. 


Fig-.  3.    Winter  Logging-  Camp.     Itasco  County,  Minnesota 


Before  winter  sets  in  the  main  road  is  built,  Fig.  15,  p.  17,  very 
carefully  graded  from  the  camp  down  to  the  nearest  mill  or  railway 
siding,  orpftener  to  the  stream  down  which  the  logs  are  to  be  floated. 
This  road  has  to  be  as  wide  as  a  city  street,  25  feet.  The  route  is 
carefully  chosen,  and  the  grade  is  made  as  easy  as  possible.  Much 
labor  is  spent  upon  it,  clearing  away  stumps  and  rocks,  leveling  up 
with  corduroy,  building  bridges  strong  enough  to  carry  enormous 
loads,  and  otherwise  making  it  as  passable  as  can  be;  for  when 
needed  later,  its  good  condition  is  of  first  importance.  This  main 
road  is  quite  distinct  from  and  much  superior  to  the  tote  road. 

At  intervals  alongside  the  main  road,  small  squares  called  skid- 
ways  are  cleared  of  brush  and  in  each  of  them  two  tree  trunks, 
"skids,"  are  laid  at  right  angles  to  the  road.  On  these  the  logs,  when 
cut  later,  are  to  be  piled.  Back  from  the  skidways  into  the  woods 
the  swampers  cut  rough,  narrow  roads  called  dray  roads  or  travoy 
roads, — mere  trails  sufficiently  cleared  of  brush  to  allow  a  team  of 
horses  to  pull  a  log  thru. 

All  these  are  operations  preliminary  to  the  felling  of  trees.  The 
tools  commonly  used  in  logging  are  shown  in  Fig.  4.  \Vhen  every- 
thing is  ready  for  felling,  the  "fitter"  goes  ahead  marking  each  tree 
to  be  felled  and  the  direction  in  which  it  is  to  fall  by  cutting  a 
notch  on  that  side.  Then  come  the  sawyers  in  pairs,  Fig.  5.  First 


10 


HANDWORK  IN  WOOD. 


,.AfVfl/W\fl«AfWUl^^ 
CMAin  CKO55-COT      SAW 


* 

CROWBAR 


Fig-.  4.    Tools  Used  in  Logging-. 

they  chop  a  deep  gash  on  the  side  of  the  tree  toward  which  it  is  to 
fall,  and  then  from  the  opposite  side  begin  cutting  with  a  long, 
Tuttle-tooth,  crosscut-saw.  The  saw  is  a  long,  flexible  ribbon  of 
steel,  with  handles  so  affixed  to  each  end  that  they  can  be  removed 
easily.  The  cut  is  made  on  the  pulling  stroke,  and  hence  the  kerf 
can  be  very  narrow.  As  soon  as  the  saw  is  well  within  the  trunk, 
the  sawyers  drive  iron  wedges  into  the  kerf  behind  it,  partly,  to  keep 
the  weight  of  the  trunk  from  binding  the  saw,  and  partly  to  direct 
its  fall.  Then  the  saw  is  pulled  back  and  forth,  and  the  wedges 


LOGGING. 


11 


driven  in  farther  and  farther,  until  every  stroke  of  the  maul  that 
drives  them  sends  a  shiver  thru  the  whole  tree.  Just  as  the  tree 
is  ready  to  go  over,  the  saw  han- 
dle at  one  end  is  unhooked  and 
the  saw  pulled  out  at  the  other 
side.  "Timber!,"  the  men  cry 
out  as  a  warning  to  any  working 
near  by,  for  the  tree  has  begun 
to  lean  slightly.  Then  with  a 
hastening  rush  the  top  whistles 
thru  the  air,  and  tears  thru  the 
branches  of  other  trees,  and  the 
trunk  with  a  tremendous  crash 
strikes  the  ground.  Even  hard- 
ened loggers  can  hardly  keep 
from  shouting,  so  impressive  is 
the  sight  of  a  falling  giant  tree. 
All  this  seems  simple  enough 
in  outline,  but  the  actual  execu- 
tion requires  considerable  skill. 
Trees  seldom  stand  quite  vertical, 

there  is  danger  of  lodging  in  some  other  tree  in  thick  woods,  and  it 
is  therefore  necessary  to  throw  trees  quite  exactly.  Some  men  become 
so  expert  at  this  that  they  can  plant  a  stake  and  drive  it  into  the 


Fig.  5.     Felling-  Red  Spruce  with  a  Saw. 
Adirondack  Mountains,  New  York. 


Fig.  6.     Sawing-  Logs  into  Lengths. 


-2 


12 


HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 


ground  by  the  falling  trunk  as  truly  as  if  they  hit  it  with  a  maul. 

On  the  other  hand,  serious  accidents  often  happen  in  falling  trees. 

Most  of  them  come 
from  "side  winders/' 
i.  e.,  the  falling  of 
smaller  trees  struck  by 
the  felled  trees. 

After  "falling"  a 
tree,  the  sawyers  mark 
off  and  saw  the  trunk 
into  log  lengths,  Fig. 
6,  paying  due  attention 
to  the  necessity  of 
avoiding  knots,  forks, 
and  rotten  places,  so 
that  some  of  the  logs 
are  eighteen  feet,  some 
sixteen  feet,  some  four- 
teen feet,  and  some  only 

twelve  feet  in  length.    Meanwhile  the  swampers  trim  off  the  branches, 

Fig.  7,  a  job  requiring  no  little  skill,  in  order  that  the  trunk  may  be 

shaved  close  but  not  gashed. 


Fig.  7.    Trimming-  off  Branches  of  Spruce. 
Adirondack  Mountains,  New  York. 


Fig.  8.     Hauling-  Spruce  Logs  to  the  Skidwa3". 
Adirondack  Mountains,  New  York. 


LOGGING. 


13 


This  finishes  the  second  group  of  operations,  the  felling.  Next 
the  logs  are  dragged  out  to  the  dray  roads,  Fig.  8.  A  heavy  pair  of 
tongs,  like  ice-tongs,  is  attached  to  one  end,  and  the  log  is  snaked 
out  by  horses  to  the  skidway.  If  the  log  is  very  heavy,  one  end  is 
put  on  a  dray.  By  one  way  or  another  the  log  is  dragged  out  and 
across  the  two  parallel  skids,  on  which  it  is  rolled  by  cant-hooks  to 
the  end  of  skids  toward  the  road  way.  If  other  logs  already  occupy 
the  skids,  each  new  log  as  it  arrives  is  piled  on  the  first  tier.  As  the 
pile  grows  higher,  each  log  is  "decked,"  that  is,  rolled  up  parallel 
poles  laid  slanting  up  the  face  of  the  pile,  by  means  of  a  chain  passed 
under  and  over  the  log  and  back  over  the  pile,  Fig.  11.  A  horse 
hitched  to  the  end  of  the  chain  hauls  up  the  log,  which  is  guided  by 
the  "send-up  men"  with  their  cant-hooks. 

Once  piled,  the  logs  are  "scaled"  that  is  measured  in  order  to 
compute  the  number  of  board  feet  in  them,  Fig,  9.  The  sealer  gen- 
erally has  an 
assistant,  for 
logs  in  large 
piles  must  be 
measured  a  t 
both  ends  in 
order  to  deter- 
mine which  is 
the  top,  the 
body  of  the  log 
being  out  of 
sight.  When 
measured  each 
end  of  the  log 
is  stamped  with 

a  hammer  with  the  owner's  mark,  by  which  it  can  afterward  be 
identified.  Here  the  logs  rest  and  the  felling  and  skidding  continue 
until  deep  snow  falls  and  then  the  sleigh  haul  begins. 

For  this  the  main  road  is  especially  prepared.  First  the  road  is 
carefully  plowed  with  an  immense  V  plow,  weighted  down  by  logs. 
To  the  plow  are  attached  fans.  Only  an  inch  or  two  of  snow  is  left 
on  the  ground  by  this  plow,  which  is  followed  by  another  special 
plow  to  gouge  the  ruts,  and  by  a  gang  of  "road  monkeys"  who  clear 


Fig.  9.     "Scaling"  Log's  on  the  Skids. 


14 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


the  road  thoroly.  Then  follows  an  immense  tank  set  on  runners  and 
holding  perhaps  seventy-five  barrels  of  water,  and  so  arranged  as  to 
flood  the  road  from  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  a  sort  of  rough 


Fig.  10.    Making-  an  Ice  Road  by  Flooding-. 


road  sprinkler,  Fig.    10.     This  sprinkler  goes  over  the  road  again 
and  again  until  the  road  is  covered  by  a  clear,  solid  sheet  of  ice  often 


Fig.  11.    Decking  Logs  on  Skidway. 


LOGGING. 


two  feet  thick,  extending  from  the  skidways  to  the  banking  grounds. 
This  ice  road  is  one  of  the  modern  improvements  in  logging.  Once 
finished,  these  roads  are  beautiful  pieces  of  construction  with  deep, 
clear  ruts.  They  have  to  be  constantly  watched  and  repaired : 
and  this  is  the  work  of  the  "road  monkeys."  If  possible  the  road 


Fig-.  12.    Loading-  a  Sled  from  a  Skidway. 

has  been  made  entirely  with  down  grades  but  some  of  these  are 
so  steep  that  a  man  must  be  prepared  with  sand  or  hay  to  check  too 
headlong  a  descent. 

When  all  is  ready  the  sleigh  haul  begins.  Piling  on  the  sleighs 
or  bobs,  Fig.  12,  is  similar  to  piling  on  the  skidways,  but  more  diffi- 
cult, for  the  load  has  to  be 
carefully  balanced,  Fig.  13. 
Chains  bind  the  loads  but  the 
piling  is  only  too  apt  to  be 
defective,  and  the  whole  load 
"squash  out"  with  a  rush.  It 
is  a  time  of  feverish  activity. 
The  sprinklers  are  at  work  till 
after  midnight,  the  loaders  are 
out  long  before  daylight.  The 
blacksmith  is  busy  with  re- 
pairs, the  road  monkeys  work 


16 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


overtime,  and  the  cook  works  all  the  time.  "Everybody  works."  The 
haul  itself  is  full  of  excitement.  The  ponderous  load  of  logs,  weigh- 
ing anywhere  from  eight  to  thirty-five  tons  has  to  be  conducted  largely 
by  its  own  momentum  down  this  glassy  road.  If  a  horse  fall  noth- 
ing can  save  its  life.  If  the  runners  get  out  of  the  ruts,  the  whole 
load,  driver  and  all,  is  likely  to  be  upset.  It  is  an  extremely  hazard- 
ous job,  Fig.  15. 

As  each  load  comes  down  to  the  banking  grounds,  Fig.  14,  or  log 
dump,  it  is  stopped  opposite  long  parallel  skids.  The  wrapping  chains 

are  unhooked 
and  the  lower 
log  on  the  skid 
side  is  worked 
out  with  cant- 
hooks  till  the 
whole  load  flat- 
tens out.  The 
logs  are  then 
"decked"  o  n 
immense  piles, 
sometimes  a 

mile  long  and  filling  the  whole  river  from  bank  to  bank.  A  decking 
chain  300  feet  long  is  sometimes  required  to  roll  the  logs  to  their 
proper  places.  Here  the  logs  rest  till  the  spring  freshets  come.  This 
completes  the  transportation  by  land. 

With  the  coming  of  the  spring  thaw,  the  river  bed  is  filled  with 
a  freshet  of  water  which  seizes  and  carries  the  logs  down  stream. 
They  often  start  on  their  water  journey  with  a  great  crash.  Many 
on  the  banks,  however,  have  to  be  started  on  their  way,  and  this  is 
called  "breaking  out  the  roll  ways." 

Now  comes  the  drive,  an  arduous  and  often  perilous  task.  Some 
of  the  men  are  stationed  along  the  shores  to  prevent  the  logs  from 
lodging  or  floating  into  bays  or  setbacks.  Some  stand  at  the  heads 
of  bars  or  islands,  where  with  pike  poles  they  shove  off  the  logs  that 
might  stop  there  and  form  a  jam;  others  follow  "sacking  the  rear" 
to  clean  out  such  logs  as  may  have  become  stranded.  This  "sacking 
the  rear"  takes  most  of  the  time,  Fig.  16.  While  "on  the  drive" 
men  often  work  fourteen  hours  a  day,  a  good  part  of  the  time  up  to 
their  waists  in  ice  water.  Their  boots  are  shod  with  "caulks,"  or 


Fig-.  14.     Banking-  Grounds. 


LOGGING. 


17 


Fig.  15.    The  Sleigh  Haul. 


Fig1. 16.    Sacking-  the  Rear. 


18 


HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 


Fig-.  17.    Log  Driving  on  the  Ausable  River. 


spikes,  to  keep  them  from  slipping  on  the  logs,  and  they  carry  either 
pike  poles  or  peaveys,  Fig.  17.     The  latter  are  similar  to  cant-hooks, 

except  that 
they  have 
sharp  pikes  at 
their  ends.  So 
armed,  they 
have  to  "ride 
any  kind  of  a 
log  in  any 
water,  to  pro- 
pel a  log  by 
jumping  on  it, 
by  rolling  it 
squirrel  fash- 
ion with  the 
feet,  by  punt- 
ing it  as  one 
would  a  ca- 
noe; to  be  skilful  in  pushing,  prying,  and  poling  other  logs  from  the 
quarter  deck  of  the  same  cranky  craft."  Altho  the  logs  are  carried 
by  the  river,  they  have  to  be  "driven"  with  amazing  skill  and  bravery. 
The  climax  of  hardship  and  courage  is  reached  when  a  "jam"  is 
formed,  Fig.  18.  Sometimes  one  or  two  logs  are  caught  in  such 
a  way  as  to  be  locked  or  jammed  and  then  soon  other  logs  begin 
to  accumulate  behind  them,  till  the  whole  river  is  full  of  a  seemingly 
inextricable  mass.  Sometimes  these  jams  can  be  loosened  by  being 
pulled  apart,  one  log  at  a  time.  A  hundred  men  can  pull  out  an 
amazing  number  of  logs  in  a  day.  The  problem  always  is  to  set  free 
or  cut  out  certain  "key"  logs,  which  lock  the  whole  mass.  Following 
is  a  description  by  Stewart  Edward  White  of  the  breaking  of  such 
a  jam : 

The  crew  were  working  desperately.  Down  on  the  heap  somewhere,  two 
logs  were  crossed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  lock  the  whole.  They  sought 
those  logs. 

Thirty  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  river  six  men  clamped  their  peaveys 
into  the  soft  pine;  jerking,  pulling,  lifting,  sliding  the  great  logs  from 
their  places.  Thirty  feet  below,  under  the  threatening  face,  six  other  men 
coolly  picked  out  and  set  adrift  one  by  one,  the  timbers  not  inextricably 
imbedded.  From  time  to  time  the  mass  creaked,  settled,  perhaps  even 


LOGGING. 


19 


moved  a  foot  or  two;  but  always  the  practised  rivermen,  after  a  glance, 
bent  more  eagerly  to  their  work.  *  *  *  Suddenly  the  six  men  below  the 
jam  scattered.  *  *  *  holding  their  peaveys  across  their  bodies,  they 
jumped  lightly  from  one  floating  log  to  another  in  the  zig-zag  to  shore.  *  *  * 


Fig.  18.     Log-  Jam.    Adirondack  Monntains,  New  York. 

In  the  meantime  a  barely  perceptible  motion  was  communicating  itself 
from  one  particle  to  another  thru  the  center  of  the  jam.  *  *  *  The  crew 
redoubled  its  exertion,  clamping  its  peaveys  here  and  there,  apparently  at 
random,  but  in  reality  with  the  most  definite  of  purposes.  A  sharp  crack 
exploded  immediately  underneath.  There  could  no  longer  exist  any  doubt 
as  to  the  motion,  altho  it  was  as  yet  sluggish,  glacial.  Then  in  silence  a 
log  shifted — in  silence  and  slowly — but  with  irresistible  force  *  *  *  other 
logs  in  all  directions  up-ended.  *  *  * 

Then  all  at  once  down  by  the  face  something  crashed,  the  entire  stream 
became  alive.  It  hissed  and  roared,  it  shrieked,  groaned,  and  grumbled.  At 
first  slowly,  then  more  rapidly,  the  very  fore-front  of  the  center  melted  in- 
ward and  forward  and  downward,  until  it  caught  the  fierce  rush  of  the 
ireshct  and  shot  out  from  under  the  jam.  Far  up-stream,  bristling  and 
formidable,  the  tons  of  logs,  grinding  savagely  together,  swept  forward.  *  *  * 

Then  in  a  manner  wonderful  to  behold,  thru  the  smother  of  foam  and 
spray,  thru  the  crash  and  yell  of  timbers,  protesting  the  flood's  hurrying, 
thru  the  leap  of  destruction,  the  drivers  zigzagged  calmly  and  surely  to  the 
shore. 

Sometimes  cables  have  to  be  stretched  across  the  chasm,  and  spe- 
cial rigging  devised  to  let  the  men  down  to  their  dangerous  task  and 
more  especially  to  save  them  from  danger  when  the  crash  comes. 


20 


HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 


Fig.  20.    Splash-Dam. 


Fig-.  21.    Logs  in  Boom.    Glens  Falls,  New  York. 


LOGGING. 


21 


In  case  such  efforts  are  unavailing,  it  is  necessary  to  "shoot"  the 
jam  with  dynamite.  Another  device  resorted  to  where  the  supply  of 
water  is  insufficient  is  the  splash-dam,  Fig.  20.  The  object  is  to 
make  the  operator  independent  of  freshets,  by  accumulating  a  head 
of  water  and  then,  by  lifting  the  gates,  creating  an  artificial  freshet, 
sufficient  to  float  the  timber  down  stream. 


Fig-.  22.    A  Sorting-  Jack. 

Thus  by  one  means  and  another,  the  logs  are  driven  along  until 
caught  by  a  boom,  Fig.  21,  which  consists  of  a  chain  of  logs  stretched 
across  the  river,  usually  at  a  mill.  Since  the  river  is  a  common 
carrier,  the  drives  of  a  number  of  logging  companies  may  float  into 
the  mill  pond  together.  But  each  log  is  stamped  on  both  ends,  so 
that  it  can  be  sorted  out,  Fig.  22,  and  sent  into  the  boom  of  its  owner. 


MECHANICAL   METHODS   IN    LUMBERING. 

The  operations  described  above  are  those  common  in  the  lumber 
regions  of  the  northeast  and  the  Lake  States.  But  special  conditions 
produce  special  methods.  A  very  effective  device  where  streams  are 
small  is  the  flume,  Fig.  23.  This  is  a  long  wooden  trough  thru 
which  water  is  led,  and  the  logs  floated  end  on.  It  is  sometimes  many 
miles  long ;  in  one  case  in  California  twenty-five  miles. 


22 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


In  the  South  where  there  is  no  snow,  logs  are  largely  brought  out 
to  the  railway  or  river  by  being  hung  under  immense  two-wheeled 
trucks,  called  slip-tongue  carts,  drawn  by  mules,  Fig.  24.  The 
wheels  are  nearly  eight  feet  in  diameter. 


Fig-.  23.     Six  Mile  Flume.     Adirondack  Mountains,  New  York. 


Some  kinds  of  wood  are  so  heavy  that  they  will  not  float  at  all, 
and  some  sink  so  readily  that  it  does  not  pay  to  transport  them  by 
riv?7*.  In  such  cases  temporary  railways  are  usually  resorted  to. 

On  the  Pacific  coast,  where  the  forests  are  dense,  the  trees  of  enor- 
mous size,  and  no  ice  road  is  possible,  still  other  special  methods  have 
been  devised.  On  so  great  a  scale  are  the  operations  conducted  that 
they  may  properly  be  called  engineering  feats.  Consider  for  a  mo- 
ment the  size  of  the  trees ;  red  fir  ranges  from  five  to  fifteen  feet  in 
diameter,  is  commonly  two. hundred  fifty  feet  high,  and  sometimes 
three  hundred  twenty-five  feet  high.  The  logs  are  commonly  cut 
twenty-four  feet  long,  and  such  logs  often  weigh  thirty  to  forty  tons 


Fig-.  24.     Hauling-  Log's  by  Mules.    Oscilla,  Georgia. 


LOGGING. 


23 


Fig.  25.    A  Twenty-Five  Foot  Saw  used  for  Crosscutting  Big;  Logs.  .... 


each,  and  the  logs  of  a  single  tree  may  weigh  together  one  hundred 
fifty  tons.  The  logging  of  such  trees  requires  special  appliances. 
Until  recently  all  the  improved  methods  were  in  forms  of  transpor- 
tation, the  felling  still  being  done  by  hand  with  very  long  saws,  Fig. 
25,  but  now  even  the  felling  and  sawing  of  logs  in  the  forest  is  partly 
done  by  machinery. 


Fig.  26.    Hauling  Big  Logs  by  Donkey  Engine. 


24  HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 

To  work  the  saw,  power  is  supplied  by  a  steam  or  gasoline  engine 
mounted  upon  a  truck  which  can  be  taken  readily  from  place  to 
place.  As  the  maximum  power  required  is  not  over  ten-horse-power, 
the  apparatus  is  so  light  that  it  can  be  moved  about  easily.  The  saw 
can  be  adjusted  to  cut  horizontally,  vertically,  or  obliquely,  and  hence 
is  used  for  sawing  into  lengths  as  well  as  for  felling. 

Falling  beds.  Since  the  weight  of  a  two  hundred  fifty  foot  fir  is 
such  that  if  the  impact  of  its  fall  be  not  gradually  checked  the  force 
with  which  it  strikes  the  ground  may  split  the  trunk,  a  bed  for  its 
fall  is  prepared  by  the  swampers.  Usually  piles  of  brush  are  placed 
as  buffers  along  the  "falling  line"  so  that  the  trunk  will  strike  these. 
If  the  tree  stands  on  the  hill  side,  it  is  thrown  up  hill,  in  order  to 
shorten  the  fall. 

After  the  felling  comes  the  trimming  of  branches  and  knots  and 
"rossing"  of  bark,  to  lessen  the  friction  in  sliding  along  the  skidway. 

The  skidway.  By  the  skidway  in  the  Puget  Sound  region  is 
meant  a  corduroy  road.  This  is  constructed  of  trunks  of  trees  rang- 
ing from  a  foot  to  two  feet  in  diameter.  These  are  "rossed,"  that  is, 
stripped  of  their  bark  and  laid  across  the  road,  where  they  are  held 
in  place  by  pegs  driven  into  the  ground,  and  by  strips  spiked  upon 
the  tops  of  the  logs.  If  possible  they  are  laid  in  swampy  places  to 
keep  the  surface  damp  and  slippery.  At  turns  in  the  road,  pulleys 
are  hung,  thru  which  the  hauling  cables  pass.  The  skidway  runs  to 
the  railway  siding  or  water's  edge.  Over  these  skidways  the  logs  are 
hauled  out  by  various  means.  Formerly  "strings"  of  oxen  or  Perch- 
eron  horses  were  used,  but  they  are  now  largely  superseded  by  some 
form  of  donkey  engine,  Figs.  26  anc!  29.  These  are  placed  at  the 
center  of  a  "yard." 

Yarding  is  the  skidding  of  logs  to  the  railway  or  water  way  by 
means  of  these  donkey  engines.  Attached  to  the  donkey  engine  are 
two  drums,  one  for  the  direct  cable,  three-fourths  to  one  inch  in  di- 
ameter and  often  half  a  mile  long,  to  haul  in  the  logs,  the  other  for 
the  smaller  return  cable,  twice  as  long  as  the  direct  cable  and  used 
to  haul  back  the  direct  cable.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  skidway,  when 
the  logs  are  ready  to  be  taken  to  the  railway  or  boomed,  they  are 
fastened  together,  end  to  end,  in  "turns"  of  four  or  more.  The 
direct  cable  is  attached  to  the  front  of  the  "turn",  and  the  return 
cable  to  the  rear  end.  By  winding  the  direct  cable  on  its  drum,  the 
"turn"  is  hauled  in.  The  return  cable  is  used  to  haul  back  the  end 


LOGGING. 


25 


of  the  direct  cable,  and  also,  in  case  of  a  jam,  to  pull  back  and 
straighten  out  the  turn.  Instead  of  a  return  cable  a  horse  is  often 
used  to  haul  out  the  direct  cable.  Signaling  from  the  upper  end  of 
the  skidway  to  the  engineer  is  done  by  a  wire  connected  to  the  don- 
key's whistle,  by  an  electric  bell,  or  by  telephone. 

Sometimes  these  donkey  engines  are  in  relays,  one  engine  hauling 
a  turn  of  logs  to  within  reach  of  the  next  one,  which  passes  it  on  to 
the  next  until  the  siding  is  reached. 


der  at  Work.    Grant  County, 
Arkansas. 


Where  there  are  steep  canons  to  be  crossed,  a  wire  trolley  may  be 
stretched  and  the  great  logs  carried  over  suspended  from  it. 

In  the  South  a  complicated  machine  called  a  steam  skidder,  Fig. 
27,  equipped  with  drums,  booms,  etc.,  is  much  used  both  for  skidding 
in  the  logs  and  then  for  loading  them  on  the  cars.  It  is  itself 
mounted  on  a  flat  car. 

An  improvement  on  this  is  the  locomotive  boom  derrick  which  is 
widely  used  both  on  the  Pacific  coast  and  of  late  in  the  Lake  Su- 
perior region.  It  is  a  combined  locomotive,  skidder  and  loader.  Its 
most  unique  feature  is  that  it  can  be  lifted  off  the  track  so  as  to  allow 
flat  cars  to  run  underneath  it.  This  feat  is  accomplished  thus:  A 
device,  which  is  something  like  that  used  in  elevating  the  bodies  of 
coal  wagons,  lifts  the-  engine  several  feet  above  the  rails.  Then  steel 
legs,  which  are  curved  outwardly,  are  lowered  until  the  shoes  which 


26  HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 

are  attached  to  them  rest  on  the  outward  end  of  the  railroad  ties. 
The  truck  of  the  locomotive  is  then  folded  up  under  it  out  of  the 
way  and  cars  can  run  under  it,  the  curved  legs  giving  plenty  of 
clearance.  The  derrick  attached  is  of  the  breast  type,  the  two  legs 


Fig-.  28.     Log-  Train.    Humboldt  County,  California. 

being  firmly  fastened.  When  anchored  the  engine  can  be  used  either 
for  skidding  or  loading.  For  skidding,  there  are  two  cables,  one 
being  run  out  while  the  other  is  being  wound  on  its  drum. 

In  loading,  the  machine  is  located  so  that  the  empty  car  will  be 
directly  in  front  of  it,  and  then  the  logs  are  lifted  up  and  placed  on 
the  car  by  the  derrick.  When  •  the  car  is  loaded  the  machine  can 
either  move  on  to  the  next  car,  or  pull  it  under  itself  into  place. 
With  the  help  of  four  men  it  can  load  from  125,000  to  150,000  feet 
of  timber  in  a  day.  By  means  of  the  cable  it  can  make  up  a  train, 
and  then  by  lowering  the  truck  and  raising  the  legs  out  of  the  way, 
it  is  converted  into  a  locomotive  and  hauls  the  train  away  to  the  mil! 
or  railway  station  at  the  rate  of  three  or  four  miles  at  hour. 

As  forests  are  cut  away  along  the  water  courses,  railways  have  to 
be  resorted  to  more  and  more,  Fig.  28.  This  has  had  a  stimulative 
effect  on  the  logging  business,  for  now  the  logger  is  independent  of  the 
snow.  On  account  of  the  steep  grades  and  sharp  curves  often  neces- 
sary in  logging  railways,  a  geared  locomotive  is  sometimes  used. 
It  can  haul  a  train  of  twenty  loaded  cars  up  a  twelve  per  cent 
grade.  The  geared  engine  has  also  been  used  as  a  substitute  for 
cable  power,  in  "yarding"  operations.  The  "turns"  of  logs  are  drawn 


LOGGING. 


27 


Fig-.  29.    Donkey  Engine  Yarding. 


Fig.  30.    Giant  Raft.    In  the  background  is  a  completed  raft; 
in  the  foreground  a  cradle  in  which  a  raft  is  being  built. 


3- 


28  HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 

over  the  ground  between  the  rails,  being  fastened  to  the  rear  of  the 
engine  by  hook  and  cable.  This  has  proved  to  be  a  very  economical 
use  of  power  and  plant. 

Another  method  of  traction  where  the  woodland  is  open  enough 
is  with  a  traction  engine.  The  ones  employed  have  sixty  to  one 
hundred  horse  power.  The  great  logs  may  be  placed  on  wood  rollers, 
as  a  house  is  when  moved,  or  the  logs  may  be  hauled  in  on  a  low 
truck  with  broad  wheels.  The  "tractor"  hauls  the  log  direct  to  the 
railway  if  the  distance  is  not  too  great. 


Snow  Locomotive.    Takes  the  place  of  12  teamsters 
and  12  horses.    Minnesota. 

In  Northern  Michigan  a  "snow  locomotive,"  Fig.  31,  is  coming 
into  use,  which  has  tremendous  tractive  power,  hauling  one  hundred 
to  one  hundred  fifty  tons  of  lumber  over  snow  or  ice.  It  moves  on 
runners,  but  there  is  between  them  a  large  cylinder  armed  with  teeth. 
This  cylinder  can  be  raised  or  lowered  by  the  operator  as  it  moves 
over  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  teeth  catch  in  the  snow  or  ice, 
and  since  the  cylinder  is  heated  by  the  exhaust  steam,  it  melts  and 
packs  the  snow  for  the  trucks  following  it.  The  drum  is  six  feet  in 
diameter,  with  walls  an  inch  and  a  half  thick,  and  it  weighs  seven 
tons.  It  is  used  in  all  sorts  of  places  where  horses  cannot  go,  as  in 
swamps,  and  by  substituting  wheels  for  runners  it  has  even  been 
used  on  sand. 

In  the  Canadian  lakes  there  has  been  devised  a  queer  creature 
called  an  "alligator,"  a  small  and  heavily  equipped  vessel  for  hauling 
the  logs  thru  the  lakes.  When  its  operations  in  one  lake  are  finished, 
a  wire  cable  is  taken  ashore  and  made  fast  to  some  tree  or  other  safe 
anchorage,  the  capstan  on  its  forward  deck  is  revolved  by  steam  and 
the  "'alligator"  hauls  itself  out  of  the  water  across  lots  to  the  next 
lake  and  begins  work  there. 


LOGGING. 


29 


The  greatest  improvement  in  ^ater  transportation  is  the  giant 
raft,  Fig.  30.  When  such  a  raft  is  made  up,  logs  of  uniform  length 
are  placed  together,  the  width  of  the  raft  being  from  sixty  to  one 
hundred  feet  and  its  length,  one  thousand  feet  or  more.  It  may  con- 
tain a  million  board  feet  of  timber.  The  different  sections  are  placed 
end  to  end,  and  long  boom  sticks,  i.  e.,  logs  sixty  to  seventy  feet 
long,  are  placed  around  them  to  bind  the  different  sections  together, 
and  finally  the  whole  mass  is  heavily  chained.  Such  a  raft  has  been 
towed  across  the  Pacific. 


LOGGING. 


REFERENCES*  : 

River  Lumbering. 

Pinchot,  Primer,  II,  pp.  40-53. 

White,  Blazed  Trail,  pp.  5-15, 
25,  38-39,  52-53,  63-65,  72- 
85,  91-99,  113-125,  134,  181- 
196,  216-229,  257,  268,  320- 
343,  355,  365  ff. 

For.  Bull.,  No.  34.  pp.  33-41, 
Fox. 

White,  Jun.  Mun.   10:    362. 

Hulbert,   Outl.,   76;    801. 

Wood   Craft,  4:    55. 

Smith,  K.,  World's  Work,  7: 
4435. 

Mechanical  Methods. 

World's  Work,  7:   4435. 
Outl,   76:    812. 
Bruncken,    p.    86. 


Bruneken,  pp.  76-87. 
Munn,  Cosmop.,  37:   441. 


Roth.   First  Book,  pp.    133-174. 

Hovey-King,  Rev.  of  Rev.,  27:    317. 
Jones,   Cosmop.   15:    63. 
Price,    World's  Work,   5:    3207. 
For.   Bull.  No.   61. 


Gassier,  29:    443,  April,  '06. 
Cosmop.,   37:    445. 
Rev.  of  Rev.  28:    319. 


*For  general  bibliography  see  page  4. 


CHAPTER  II. 


SAWMILLING. 

Tlie  principal  saws  in  a  mill  are  of  three  kinds,  the  circular,  Fig. 
32,  the  gang,  Fig.  33,  and  the  band,  Fig.  34.  The  circular-saw,  tho 
very  rapid,  is  the  most  wasteful  because  of  the  wide  kerf,  and  of 
course  the  larger  the  saw  the  thicker  it  is  and  the  wider  the  kerf. 

The  waste  in  sawdust  is  about 
one-fifth  of  the  log.  In  order 
to  lessen  this  amount  two 
smaller  saws,  one  hung  directly 
above  the  other,  have  been  used. 
One  saws  the  lower  half  of  the 
log  and  the  other  the  upper 
half.  In  this  way,  it  is  possible 
to  cut  very  large  logs  with  the 
circular-saw  and  with  less  waste. 
The  circular-saw  is  not  a  per- 
fectly flat  disc,  but  when  at  rest 
is  slightly  convex  on  one  side 
and  concave  on  the  other.  This 
fullness  can  be  pushed  back  and 


Fitf.32.    Double  Circular-Saw  and  Carriage.  ^^    ^    ^    ^    bottom    Qf    an 

oil-can.  When  moving  at  a  high 

rate  of  speed,  however,  the  saw  flattens  itself  by  centrifugal  force. 
This  enables  it  to  cut  straight  with  great  accuracy. 

A  gang-saw  is  simply  a  series  of  straight  saw-blades  set  in  a  ver- 
tical frame.  This  has  a  reciprocating  motion,  enabling  it  to  cut  a 
log  into  a  number  of  boards  at  one  time.  It  has  this  drawback,  that 
it  must  cut  the  size  of  lumber  for  which  it  is  set  ;  that  is,  the  sawyer 
has  no  choice  in  cutting  the  thickness,  but  it  is  very  economical,  wast- 
ing only  one-eighth  of  the  log  in  sawdust.  A  special  form  is  the  floor- 
ing gang.  It  consists  of  a  number  of  saws  placed  one  inch  apart. 
Thick  planks  are  run  thru  it  to  saw  up  flooring. 

30 


SAWMILLING. 


31 


The  band-saw  is  fast  displacing  the  other  two,  wherever  it  car- 
be  used.  It  cuts  with  great  rapidity  and  the  kerf  is  narrow.  When 
first  used  it  could  not  be  depended  upon  to  cut  straight,  but  by  util- 
izing the  same 
principle  that 
is  used  in  the 
circular-saw,  of 
putting  the  cut- 
ting edge  un- 
der great  ten- 
sion by  making 
it  slightly 
shorter  than 
the  middle  of 
the  saw,  it  now 
cuts  with  great 
accuracy.  Band- 
saws  are  now 
made  up  to  12 
inches  wide,  50 
feet  long,  and 

run  at  the  rate  of  10,000  feet  a  minute.  They  are  even  made  with  the 
cutting  teeth  on  both  edges,  so  that  the  log  can  be  sawed  both  going 
and  coming.  This  idea  was  unsuccessful  until  the  invention  of  the 
telescopic  band-mill,  Fig.  35.  In  this  the  entire  mechanism  carry- 


Fig.  33.    Gang-Saw. 


Fig.  34.    Band-Saw. 


32 


HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 


ing  the  wheels  on  which  the 
band-saw  revolves  can  be  moved 
up  and  down,,  so  as  to  bring  the 
point  where  the  saw  leaves  the 
upper  wheel  as  close  to  the  top 
of  the  different  sized  logs  as 
possible. 

The  usual  modern  mill  is  a 
two  story  building,  Fig.  37,  built 
at  a  convenient  locality  both  for 
receiving  the  logs  and  for  ship- 
ping the  lumber.  Whether  the 
logs  arrive  by  water  or  by  rail, 
they  are,  if  possible,  stored  in 
a  mill-pond  until  used  in  order 
to  prevent  checking,  discolora- 
tion, decay,  and  worm  attack. 
From  the  pond  they  are  hauled 

up  out  of  the  water  on  to  a  "jack-ladder,"  by  means  of  an  endless 
chain,   provided  with   saddles  or   spurs   which   engage  the  logs   and 


Fig-.  35.     Double-Cutting-  Telescopic   Band- 
Mill.     Mill  in  raised  position  for 
larg-e  log-. 


Fig-.  36.     Jack-Ladder,  with  Endless  Chain. 


SAWMILLING. 


33 


34 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


•^:    7'<* 


draw  them  up   into  the   second  story   on  to  the  log  slip,   Fig.    36. 

After  the  logs  have  entered  the  mill,  they  are  inspected  for  stones 

lodged  in  the  bark,  and  for  spikes  left  by  the  river  men,  and  then 

measured.        Under     the     log- 
slip     is     the     steam     "flipper" 
or  "kicker,"  Fig.  38,  by  means 
^Bgffl"rr*^T^':v^7****''! — _  of  which   the  sealer   or  his   as- 

«£  -  'jj$^  •".:£^i^."  •  '  -  ^^•fr- 

sistant,  throwing  a  lever,  causes 

'  /"  the  log  to  be  kicked  over  to  one 

side  or  the  other,  on  to  the  log  - 
deck,  an  inclined  floor  sloping 
toward  the  saw-carriage.  Down 
this  the  log  rolls  until  stopped 
by  a  log-stop,  or  log-loader,  Fig. 
39,  a  double-armed  projection, 
Fig-.  38.  Log-Fiipper.  which  prevents  it  from  rolling 

on    the     carriage    till     wanted. 

This  stop  is  also  worked  by  steam.     By  letting  the  steam  into  the 
cylinder  which  controls  it,  one  log  is  rolled  over  on  the  carriage  and 
the  next  one  held.    The  log  on  the  carriage  is  at  once  "dogged,"  that 
is,  clamped  tight  by  iron  dogs,  the  carriage  is  set  for  the  proper  cut, 
and  moves  forward  to  the  saw 
which    cuts    off    the   first    slab. 
The  carriage  is  then   "gigged" 
or  reversed.     This  operation  off- 
sets  the  carriage  one-eighth   of 
an  inch  so  that  the  log  returns 
entirely  clear   of   the   saw.      In 
the  same  way  two  or  three  1" 
boards   are  taken   off,  the   dogs 
are  then  knocked  out,  and  the 
log  canted  over  half  a  revolu- 
tion.   This  is  done  by  means  of 
the  "steam  nigger,"  Fig.  40,  a 
long,  perpendicular  toothed  bar 
which  comes  up  thru  the  floor, 

engages     the     log,     and     turns     it  Fig.  39.     Log-Stop  and   Loader.     By  letting 

over  till  the  sawn  side  comes  up        ^£°^^n^^t£^  car- 

against     the     kneeS     Of     the     Car-  -age  and  holding  the  next  one  till  wanted. 


SAWMILLING. 


35 


riage.  The  log  is  dogged  again  and  a  second  slab  and  several  boards 
are  taken  off.  The  log  or  "stock"  as  it  is  now  called,  is  10",  12", 
14",  or  16"  thick;  the  "nigger"  then  gives  it  a  quarter-turn,  leav- 
ing it  lying  on  a  sawn  side.  It  is  dogged  again,  and  all  sawn  up 
except  enough  to  make  a  few  boards.  This  last  piece  is  given  a  half- 
turn,  bringing  the  sawn  side  against  the  knees,  and  it  is  sawn  up. 
Each  board  as 
it  is  sawn  off 
is  thrown  by 
the  board-flip- 
per or  cant-flip- 
per,2 Fig.  41, 
on  to  the  "live 
rollers,"  which 
take  it  to  the 
next  process. 
Another  log 
comes  on  the 
carriage  and 
the  process  is 
repeated. 

The  saw-car- 
riage, Fig.  42, 
i  s  propelled 
forward  and 
back  by  a  pis- 
ton running  in 
a  long  cylinder, 
into  either  end 
of  which  steam 
can  be  turned 
by  the  operator. 
As  the  sawn 

boards  fall  off  the  log,  they  land  on  "live,"  that  is,  revolving  rollers, 
which  carry  them  along  at  the  rate  of  200  to  250  feet  a  minute. 
Stops  are  provided  farther  along  to  stop  the  boards  wherever  wanted, 
as  at  the  edger,  Fig.  43,  or  the  slasher.  From  the  live  rollers  the 


Fig.  40.    The  Steam  Nigger.     The  toothed  bar  turns  the  log- 
over  into  the  desired  position. 


A  "cant"  is  a  squared  or  partly  squared  log. 


36 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


boards  are  trans- 
ferred automatically, 
Fig.  44,  by  chains 
running  at  right  an- 
gles to  the  rollers 
and  brought  within 
reach  of  the  edger 
man.  About  one- 
third  of  the  boards 
of  a  log  have  rough 
edges,  and  are  called 
"waney."  These  must 
go  thru  the  edger  to 
make  their  edges 
parallel.  The  edger 
man  works  with 
great  speed.  He  sees 
at  once  what  can  be 
made  out  of  a  board, 


2 1. 


m 


Fig-.  41.  Steam  Cant-Flipper. 
This  machine  is  used  to 
move  cants,  timber  or  lumber 
from  live  rollers  to  gangs, 
band  resaw  mills,  or  else- 
where. The  timber  is  dis- 
charged upon  skid  rollers, 
as  shown,  or  upon  transfer 
chains. 


places  it  in  position  and  runs  it  thru.  From 
the  edger  the  boards  are  carried  to  the  trim- 
mer, which  cuts  the  length.  The  lumber- 
man's rule  is  to  "cut  so  that  you  can  cut 
again."  The  so-called  16'  logs  are  really  16' 
6".  The  trimmer,  Fig.  45,  now  trims  these 

boards  to  16'  1",  so  that  if  desired  they  can  still  be  cut  again.  The 
trimmer  may  be  set  to  cut  at  any  desired  length 
according  to  the  specifications. 

The  boards  are  now  graded  as  to  quality 
into  No.  1,  No.  2,  etc.,  Fig.  46, 
and  run  out  of  the  mill,  to  be 
stacked  up  in  piles,  Fig.  47.  Big 
timbers  go  directly  from  the  saw 
on  the  rolls  to  the  back  end  of 
the  mill,  where  the  first  end  is 
trimmed  by  a  butting-saw  or  cut- 
off-saw which  swings,  Fig.  48. 
The  timber  is  then  shoved  along 

Fig.  42.     Log-Carriage,   holding  quartered        on     fi^fi     T0\]s     ancj    f]ie     ]ag^     enc] 
log  in  position  to  saw. 


SAWMILLING. 


37 


Fig-.  43. 
of  the  "waney1 


Double  Gang-  Edg-er.      This  machine  trims  off  the  rough  edg-es 
boards  by  means  of  the  four  saws  in  the  main  frame  of  the  machine. 


Fig.  44.    Automatic  Steam  Transfer  for  Timber,  Lumber  and  Slabs. 

The  boards  are  carried  along  by  the  cylinders,  C  C  C,  until  they   hit  the  bumper,  B. 

This  movement  admits  steam  to  the  cylinder,  CY,  which  raises  the  revolving-  chains 

or  skids,  which  transfers  the  stock  sidewise  to  other  live  rollers  as  required. 


38 


HANDWOKK    IN    WOOD. 


Fig.  45.     Automatic  Gang-  Lumber-Trimmer.    It  may  be  set  to  cut  automatically 
to  any  desired  length. 


Fig-.  46.    Lumber  Sorting-  Shed,  Virginia,  Minnesota 


Fig-  47.    Log-sand  Lumber. 


SAWMILLING. 


39 


Fig.  48.    Cut-off-Saw.    This  saw 
trims  the  ends  of  timbers. 


trimmed  by  the  butting-saw  to  a  definite  length  as  specified,  and 

shoved  out. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  the  modern  mill  is  its 

speed.     From  the  time  the  log  appears  till  the  last  piece  of  it  goes 

racing  out  of  the  mill,  hardly 
more  than  a  minute  may  have 
elapsed. 

A  large  part  of  the  problem 
of  sawmilling  is  the  disposal 
of  the  waste.  The  first  of  these 
is  the  sawdust.  In  all  first 
class  mills,  this  together  with 
shavings  (if  a  planing-mill  is 
combined)  is  burned  for  fuel. 
It  is  sucked  up  from  the  ma- 
chines and  carried  in  large 
tubes  to  the  boiler-room  and 
there  is  mechanically  supplied 
to  the  fires.  The  slabs,  once 

considered   as   waste,   contain  much   material  that   is   now   utilized. 

From  the  live  rolls,  on  which  all  the  material  falls  from  the  main 

band-saw,  the  slabs  are  carried  off  by  transfer  chains,  and  by  another 

set  of  five  rollers  to  the  "slasher,"  Fig.  50,  which  consists  of  a  line 

of    circular-saws    placed    4'     1" 

apart.     This  slasher  cuts  up  the 

slabs    into    lengths    suitable    for 

lath  or  fence-pickets,  Fig.  49.   Or 

they    can    be    resawn    into    16" 

lengths  for  shingles  or  fire-wood. 
From  the  "slasher"  the  4'  1" 

lengths  are  carried  on  by  travel- 
ing   platforms,    chains,    etc.,    to 

the  lath-machines,  Fig.  51,  where 

they    are    sawn   up,   counted    as 

sawn,  bound  in  bundles  of  100, 

trimmed  to  exactly  4'  in  length 

and  sent  off  to  be  stored.    The  shingle  bolts  are  picked  off  the  mov- 
ing platforms  by  men  or  boys,  and  sent  to  the  shingle-machine,  Fig. 

52,  where  they  are  sawn  into  shingles  and  dropped  down-stairs  to 


Fig.  49.     Ten  Saw  Gang  Lath-Bolter.    This 

machine  cuts  up  material  lengthwise 

into  laths. 


40 


HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 


I 


Fig.  50.    Slab-Slasher.  This  machine  cuts  up  the  slabs  into  lengths  suitable 
for  lath  or  fence-pickets. 


SAWMILLING. 


41 


be  packed.     Shingle-bolts  are  also  made  from  crooked  or  otherwise 
imperfect  logs. 

Of  what  is  left,  a  good  part  goes  into  the  grinder  or  <rhog,"  Fig. 
53,  which  chews  up  all  sorts  of  refuse  into  small  chips  suitable  for 


Fig-.  51.  Combination  Lath-Binder 
and  Trimmer.  With  this  machine  the  op- 
erator can  trim  the  bundles  of  lath,  simply 
by  tiltingr  the  packing-  frame  over  from  him 
causing-  the  bundles  to  pass  between  the 
saws,  thereby  trimming  both  ends  at  one 
movement. 


Fig.  52.     Hand     Shingle-Machine 

This  machine  is  used  in  Sawmills  in  which 

it  is  desired  to  utilize  slabs  and  trimming's 

by  sawing-  shingles  therefrom,  or  to   saw 

shingles  from  prepared  bolts. 


fuel  to  supplement  the  sawdust  if  necessary.     Band-saws  make  so 

little  dust  and  such  fine  dust  that  this  is  often  necessary. 

If  there  is  any  refuse  that  cannot  be  used  at  all  it  goes  to  the 

scrap-pile,  Fig.  54,  or  to  the  "consumer/'  the  tall  stack  shown  in  Fig. 

37,  see  p.  33. 

Boards  ordinarily  sawn  from  logs  are   "slash-sawn,"  i.  e.,  they 

are  tangential  or  bastard,  each  cut  parallel  to  the  previous  one.     By 

this  process,  only  the  central  boards  would  be  radial  or  "rift"  boards. 
But,  for  a  number  of  reasons,  radial  boards  are  better.    They  warp 

less  because  the  annual  rings  cross  the  board  more  evenly.  Yel- 
low pine  flooring  that  is  rift- 
sawn  is  more  valuable  than 
slash-sawn,  because  the  edge 
of  the  annual  rings  makes  a 
more  even  grain,  Fig.  55.  Where 
slash-grained  flooring  is  used, 
the  boards  should  be  laid  so 
that  the  outside  of  each  board 


will  be  up  in  order  that  the  in- 
ner rings  may  not  "shell  out." 


Fig.  53.  Edging  Grinder  or  Hog.  It  cuts  any 

kind  of  wood  into  coarse  or  fine  chips 

suitable  to  be  handled  by 

chain  conveyor  or  blower. 


42 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


Ill  sawing  oak  for  valuable  furniture  or  trim,  the  log  is  first 
"quartered"  and  then  the  quarters  sawn  up  as  nearly  radially  as  is 
desired.  There  are  various  methods  of  cutting  quartered  logs,  as 
illustrated  in  Fig.  56. 

In  making  staves  for  water-tight  barrels,  it  is  essential  that  they 
be  cut  radially  in  the  log,  in  order  that  the  staves  be  as  non-perme- 
able to  water  as  possible. 


Fig-.  54.     Scrap-Pile,  Oscilla,  Georg-ia. 


Fig.  55.     Slash-Grain  and  Comb-Grain  Flooring-. 


SAWMILLING. 


43 


7- /a 

Fig.  56.     Methods  of  Sawing  Quartered  Logs. 


SAWMILLING. 
REFERENCES  :  * 

Trout,  Gassier  11:   83,  184. 
Woodcraft  5:   56,  May  '06. 


Tor  general  bibliography  see  p.  4. 


44 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


CHAPTER  III. 
SEASONING. 

The  seasoning  of  wood  is  important  for  several  reasons.  It  re- 
duces weight,  it  increases  strength,  it  prevents  changes  in  volume 
after  it  is  worked  into  shape,  and  it  prevents  checking  and  decay. 
Decay  can  also  be  prevented  by  submergence  and  burying,  if  by  so 
doing  logs  are  kept  from  fungal  attacks.  The  piles  of  the  Swiss 
Lake  dwellings,  which  are  in  a  state  of  good  preservation,  are  of 
prehistoric  age.  Wood  under  water  lasts  longer  than  steel  or  iron 
under  water.  But  for  almost  all  purposes  wood  has  to  be  dried  in 
order  to  be  preserved.  The  wood  is  cut  up,  when  green,  to  as  thin 
pieces  as  will  be  convenient  for  its  use  later,  for  the  rate  of  drying 
depends  largely  upon  the  shape  and  size  of  the  piece,  an  inch  board 
drying  more  than  four  times  as  fast  as  a  four  inch  plank,  and  more 
than  twenty  times  as  fast  as  a  ten  inch  timber. 

There  are  various  methods  of  seasoning: 

(1)  Natural  or  air-seasoning  is  the  most  common,  and  in  some 
respects  the  best.  In  this  method,  the  wood  is  carefully  and  reg- 
ularly piled  in  the  seasoning-yard,  so  as  to  be  protected  as  far  as  pos- 
sible from  sun  and  rain,  but  with  air  circulating  freely  on  all  sides 
of  the  boards,  Fig.  47,  see  p.  38.  To  accomplish  this,  "sticking"  is 
employed,  i.  e.,  strips  of  wood  are  placed  crosswise  close  to  the  ends 
and  at  intervals  between  the  boards.  In  this  way  the  weight  of  the 
superposed  boards  tends  to  keep  those  under  them  from  warping.  The 
pile  is  skidded  a  foot  or  two  off  the  ground  and  is  protected  above  by  a 
roof  made  of  boards  so  laid  that  the  rain  will  drain  off. 

Fire-wood  is  best  dried  rapidly  so  that  it  will  check,  making  air 
spaces  which  facilitate  ignition,  but  lumber  needs  to  be  slowly  dried 
in  cool  air  so  that  the  fibers  may  accommodate  themselves  to  the 
change  of  form  and  the  wood  check  as  little  as  possible.  Good  air- 
drying  consumes  from  two  to  six  years,  the  longer  the  better. 

45 


4b  HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 

(2)  Kiln-drying  or  hot-air-seasoning  is  a  much  more  rapid  pro- 
cess than  air-seasoning  and  is  now  in  common  use,  Fig.  57.  The 
drying  is  also  more  complete,  for  while  air-dried  wood  retains  from 
10  %  to  20%  of  moisture,  kiln-dried  wood  may  have  no  more  than 
5y0  as  it  comes  from  the  kiln.  It  will,  however,  reabsorb  some 
moisture  from  the  air,  when  exposed  to  it. 

The  wood  of  conifers,  with  its  very  regular  structure,  dries  and 
shrinks  more  evenly  and  much  more  rapidly  than  the  wood  of  broad- 
leaved  trees,  and  hence  is  often  put  into  the  kiln  without  previous 
air-drying,  and  dried  in  a  week  or  even  less  time. 

Oak  is  the  most  difficult  wood  to  dry  properly.  When  it  and 
other  hardwoods  are  rapidly  dried  without  sufficient  surrounding 
moisture,  the  wood  "case-hardens,"  that  is,  the  outer  part  dries  and 
shrinks  before  the  interior  has  had  a  chance  to  do  the  same,  and  this 
forms  a  shell  or  case  of  shrunken,  and  often  checked  wood  around 
the  interior  which  also  checks  later.  This  interior  checking  is  called 
honeycombing.*  Hardwood  lumber  is  commonly  air-dried  from  two 
to  six  months,  before  being  kiln-dried.  For  the  sake  of  economy  in 
time,  the  tendency  is  to  eliminate  yard-drying,  and  substitute  kiln- 
drying.  Kiln-drying  of  one  inch  oak,  takes  one  or  two  weeks,  quarter- 
sawn  boards  taking  one  and  a  half  times  as  long  as  plain-sawn. 

The  best  method  of  drying  is  that  which  gradually  raises  the  tem- 
perature of  both  the  wood  and  of  the  water  which  it  contains  to  the 
point  at  which  the  drying  is  to  take  place.  Care  is  therefore  taken 
not  to  let  the  surface  become  entirely  dry  before  the  internal  moisture 
is  heated.  This  is  done  by  retaining  the  moisture  first  vaporized 
about  the  wood,  by  means  of  wet  steam.  When  the  surface  is  made 
permeable  to  moisture,  drying  may  take  place  rapidly.  Curtains  of 
canvas  are  hung  all  around  the  lumber  on  the  same  principle  that 
windows  in  newly  plastered  buildings  are  hung  with  muslin.  The 
moisture  is  absorbed  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  curtain  and  evap- 
orates from  the  outer  surface.  Improvements  in  kiln-drying  are  along 
the  line  of  moist  air  operation.  In  common  practice,  however,  the 
moist  air  principle  is  often  neglected. 

There  are  two  methods  in  operation,  the  progressive  method  and 
the  charge  method.  In  the  progressive,  the  process  is  continuous, 
the  loads  going  in  at  one  end  of  the  kiln,  and  out  at  the  other,  the 
temperature  and  the  moisture  being  so  distributed  in  the  kiln,  that 


*See  Wood  and  Forest,  pp.  43,  47,  232. 


SEASONING.  47 

in  passing  from  the  green  to  the -dry  end,  a  load,  of  lumber  is  first 
moistened,  then  heated,  and  finally  dried  out.  In  the  charge  system, 
the  process  is  intermittent,  one  charge  being  removed  before  a  new 
one  is  admitted.  This  gives  the  best  results  with  high  grade  lumber 
for  special  uses. 

A  modification  of  hot-air-seasoning  is  that  which  subjects  the 
wood  to  a  moderate  heat  in  a  moist  atmosphere  charged  with  the 
products  of  the  combustion  of  fuel. 

(3)  Small  pieces  of  wood  may  be  effectively  seasoned  by  being 
boiled  in  water  and  then  dried.    The  process  seems  to  consist  of  dis- 
solving out  albuminous  substances  and  thus  allowing  freer  evapora- 
tion.   Its  effect  is  probably  weakening. 

(4)  Soaking  in  water  is  sometimes  used  as  a  good  preparation 
for  air-seasoning.     Previous  soaking  hastens  seasoning.     River  men 
insist  that  timber  is  improved  by  rafting.     It  is  a  common  practice 
to  let  cypress  logs  soak  in  the  swamps  where  they  grow  for  several 
months  before  they  are  "mined  out."     They  are  eagerly  sought  after 
by  joiners  and  carpenters,  because  their  tendency  to  warp  is  lessened. 
In  the  island  of  Mauritius,  ebony  is  water-soaked  as  soon  as  cut. 
Salt  water  renders  wood  harder,  heavier,  and  more  durable  and  is 
sometimes  applied  to  ship  timbers,  but  cannot  be  used  with  timbers 
intended  for  ordinary  purposes,  as  the  presence  of  salt  tends  to  absorb 
atmospheric  moisture. 

(5)  Boiling  in  oil  is  resorted  to  for  special  purposes,  both  for 
preservation  and  to  give  strength.    For  example,  the  best  handscrews 
are  so  treated.     The  oil  also  prevents  glue  from  sticking,  the  most 
frequent  cause  of  injury  to  handscrews. 

(6)  There  are  a  number  of  "impregnation"'  methods  of  preserv- 
ing timber,  and  their  practice  is  spreading  rapidly.     Of  the  various 
preservative  processes,  those  using  coal  tar  creosote  and  zinc  chlorid 
have  proved  most  efficient.     The  purpose  is  to  force  the  preservative 
into  the  pores  of  the  wood,  either  by  painting,  soaking,  or  putting  un- 
der pressure.     Such  impregnation  methods  double  or  treble  the  life 
of  railway  ties.     It  is  now  being  used  with  great  success  to  preserve 
electric  wire  poles,  mine-props,  piling,  fence-posts,  etc. 

Wood  preservation  has  three  great  advantages,  it  prolongs  me  life 
of  timbers  in  use,  reduces  their  cost,  and  makes  possible  the  use  of 
species  that  once  were  considered  worthless.  For  example,  the  cheap 


48  HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 

and  abundant  loblolly  pine  can  be  made,  by  preservative  methods,  to 
take  the  place  of  high  priced  long-leaf  pine  for  many  purposes. 

PRACTICAL   SUGGESTIONS   TOR  STORING   LUMBER. 

Under  the  hasty  methods  prevalent  in  the  mill,  very  little  wood 
comes  to  the  shop  well  seasoned,  and  it  should  therefore  be  carefully 
stored  before  using,  so  as  to  have  the  fullest  possible  air  circulation 
around  it.  Where  the  boards  are  large  enough,  "sticking"  is  the  best 
method  of  storage,  i.  e.,  narrow  strips  of  wood  are  placed  at  short 
intervals  between  the  pieces  which  are  piled  flat.  The  weight  of  the 
boards  themselves  helps  to  prevent  warping.  Boards  set  upright  or 
on  edge  are  likely  to  be  distorted  soon.  It  is  often  wise  to  press  to- 
gether with  weights  or  to  clamp  together  with  handscrews  boards 

that  show  a  tendency  to  warp, 
putting  the  two  concave  sides 
together.  Then  the  convex 
side  is  exposed  and  the  board 
may  straighten  thus:  Fig.  58. 
By  wrapping  up  small  boards 
in  paper  or  cloth  in  the  inter- 
vals between  work  on  them, 


Fig.  58.  Clamping- up  Boards  to  Prevent  .    .   , 

warping.  they  may  be  kept  straight  un- 

til they  are  assembled. 

Another  precaution  to  take  is  to  be  sure  to  plane  both  sides  of  a 
board  if  either  is  planed,  especially  if  the  board  has  been  exposed  to 
air-drying  for  some  time. 

WOOD     MEASUREMENTS. 

Lumber  is  a  general  term  for  all  kinds  of  sawn  wood.  Logs  may 
be  sawn  into  timber,  that  is,  beams  and  joists,  into  planks,  which 
are  2"  to  4"  thick,  or  into  boards  which  are  from  y4"  to  1^4"  thick. 
These  may  be  resawn  into  special  sizes. 

Lumber  is  measured  by  the  superficial  foot,  which  is  a  board  1" 
thick,  12"  wide,  and  12"  long,  so  that  a  board  1"  thick,  (or  J/$" 
dressed)  6"  wide  and  12'  0"  long,  measures  6'  B.  M.  (board  measure). 
Boards  1"  or  more  thick  are  sold  by  the  "board  foot"  which  is  equiva- 
lent to  12"  square  and  1"  thick.  Boards  less  than  1"  thick  are  sold 
by  the  square  foot,  face  measure.  Dressed  lumber  comes  in  sizes  */&" 
less  than  sawn  lumber.  Eegular  sizes  are : 


SEASONING.  49 

%"  dressed  to  y2" 

y^"  dressed  to  y%' 

1  "  dressed  to  7/8" 
\Y4"  dressed  to  1^" 
\y2"  dressed  to  1^" 

2  "  dressed  to  l7/8" 

Any  of  these  may  be  dressed  down  to  thinner  boards,  or  resawn 
on  a  special  band-saw. 

In  ordering  it  is  common  to  give  the  dimensions  wanted,  in  the 
order  of  thickness,  width,  and  length,  because  that  is  the  order  in 
which  dimensions  are  gotten  out.  E.  g. : 

6  pcs.  quar.  oak,  %"x6"x3'  0" 
2  pcs.  quar.  oak,  ^"x7j^"xl5" 

If  a  piece  wanted  is  short  the  way  the  grain  goes,  the  order  would 
be  the  same,  thus:  M"xll"  (wide)  x  6"  (long).  That  is,  "long" 
means  the  way  the  grain  runs.  It  is  always  safe  to  specify  in  such  a 
case.  It  is  common  when  small  pieces  are  ordered  to  add  one-quarter 
to  the  cost  for  waste. 

In  large  lots  lumber  is  ordered  thus:  800'  (B.  M.)  whitewood, 
dressed  2  sides  to  %",  10"  and  up.  This  means  that  the  width  of  any 
piece  must  not  be  less  than  10".  Prices  are  usually  given  per  "M," 
i.  e.,  per  1000  ft. ;  e.  g. :  basswood  may  be  quoted  at  $40.00  per  M. 

When  thin  boards  are  desired  it  is  often  economical  to  buy  inch 
stuff  and  have  it  resawn. 

Some  lumber  is  also  ordered  by  the  "running"  or  lineal  foot,  es- 
pecially moldings,  etc.,  or  by  the  piece,  if  there  is  a  standard  size 
as  in  fence-posts,  studs,  etc.  Laths  and  shingles  are  ordered  by  the 
bundle  to  cover  a  certain  area.  1000  4"  shingles  (=4  bundles)  cover 
110  sq.  ft.  with  4"  weather  exposure.  100  laths  (1  bundle)  each 
%"xl>^"x4'  0"  cover  about  150  sq.  ft. 

There  are  several  methods  of  measuring  lumber.  The  general  rule 
is  to  multiply  the  length  in  feet  by  the  width  and  thickness  in  inches 
and  divide  by  12,  thus:  l"x6"x!5'-:-12=7^  feet.  The  use  of  the 
Essex  board-measure  and  the  Lumberman's  board-measure  are  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  4,  pp.  109  and  111. 


50  HANDWORK    IN   WOOD. 


THE    SEASONING    AND    MEASURING    OF    WOOD. 
REFERENCES : * 
SEASONING. 

For.  Bull,  No.  41,  pp.  5-12,  von      Boulger,  pp.  66-70,   80-88. 

Schrenk. 
Dunlap,     Wood     Craft,     <>:     133,      Wood   Craft,   6:    31,  Nov.   '06. 

Feb.    '07. 
For.    Circ.    No.    40,     pp.     10-16,      For.   Circ.  No.   139. 

Herty. 
Barter,  pp.  39-53.  Agric.  Yr.  Bk.,  1905,  pp.  455-464. 

MEASURING. 

Sickels,  pp.  22,  29.  Building      Trades     Pockefbook,      pp 

335,  349,   357. 
Goss,  p.   12.  Tate,  p.  21. 


hFor  general  bibliography  see  page  4. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
WOOD  HAND  TOOLS. 

The  hand  tools  in  common  use  in  woodworking  shops  may,  for 
convenience,  be  divided  into  the  following  classes:  1,  Cutting;  2, 
Boring;  3,  Chopping;  4,  Scraping;  5,  Pounding;  6,  Holding;  7, 
Measuring  and  Marking;  8,  Sharpening;  9,  Cleaning. 

1.    CUTTING    TOOLS. 

The  most  primitive  as  well  as  the  simplest  of  all  tools  for  the 
dividing  of  wood  into  parts,  is  the  wedge.  The  wedge  does  not  even 
cut  the  wood,  but  only  crushes  enough  of  it  with  its  edge  to  allow 
its  main  body  to  split  the  wood  apart.  As  soon  as  the  split  has  be- 
gun, the  edge  of  the  wedge  serves  no  further  purpose,  but  the  sides 
bear  against  the  split  surfaces  of  the  wood.  The  split  runs  ahead  of 
the  wedge  as  it  is  driven  along  until  the  piece  is  divided. 

It  was  by  means  of  the  wedge  that  primitive  people  obtained 
slabs  of  wood,  and  the  great  change  from  primitive  to  civilized  meth- 
ods in  manipulating  wood  consists  in  the  substitution  of  cutting  for 
splitting,  of  edge  tools  for  the  wedge.  The  wedge  follows  the  grain 
of  the  wood,  but  the  edge  tool  can  follow  a  line  determined  by  the 
worker.  The  edge  is  a  refinement  and  improvement  upon  the  wedge 
and  enables  the  worker  to  be  somewhat  independent  of  the  natural 
grain  of  the  wood. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  function  of  all  cutting  tools 
is  to  separate  one  portion  of  material  from  another  along  a  definite 
path.  All  such  tools  act,  first,  by  the  keen  edge  dividing  the  material 
into  two  parts;  second,  by  the  wedge  or  the  blade  forcing  these  two 
portions  apart.  If  a  true  continuous  cut  is  to  be  made,  both  of  these 
actions  must  occur  together.  The  edge  must  be  sharp  enough  to 
enter  between  the  small  particles  of  material,  cutting  without  bruising 
them,  and  the  blade  of  the  tool  must  constantly  force  apart  the  two 
portions  in  order  that  the  cutting  action  of  the  edge  may  continue. 

The  action  of  an  ax  in  splitting  wood  is  not  a  true  cut,  for  only 

51 


52 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


the  second  process  is  taking  place,  Fig.  59.  The  split  which  opens 
in  front  of  the  cutting  edge  anticipates  its  cutting  and  therefore  the 
surfaces  of  the  opening  are  rough  and  torn. 

When  a  knife  or  chisel  is 
pressed  into  a  piece  of  wood  at 
right  angles  to  the  grain,  and 
at  some  distance  from  the  end 
of  the  wood,  as  in  Fig.  60,  a 
continuous  cutting  action  is 
prevented,  because  soon  the 
blade  cannot  force  apart  the 
sides  of  the  cut  made  by  the 


Fig-.  59. 
Wedg-e  Action. 


Fig-.  60 
Edg-e  Action. 


advancing  edge,  and  the  knife 
is  brought  to  rest.    In  this  case, 
it  is  practically  only  the  first  action  which  has  taken  place. 

Both  the  actions,  the  cutting  and  the  splitting,  must  take  place 
together  to  produce  a  true  continuous  cut.  The  edge  must  always  be 
in  contact  with  the  solid  material,  and  the  blade  must  always  be 
pushing  aside  the  portions  which  have  been  cut.  This  can  happen 
only  when  the  material  on  one  side  of  the  blade  is  thin  enough  and 
weak  enough  to  be  readily  bent  out  of  the  way  without  opening  a 
split  in  front  of  the  cutting  edge.  This  cutting  action  may  take 
place  either  along  the  grain,  Fig.  61,  or  across  it,  Fig.  62. 

The   bending   aside   of   the   shaving   will   require   less   force   the 
smaller  the  taper  of  the  wedge.     On  the  other  hand,  the  wedge  must 
be  strong  enough  to  sustain  the  bending  resistance  and  also  to  sup- 
port the  cutting  edge.    In  other 
words,  the  more  acute  the  cut- 
ting edge,  the  easier  the  work, 
and  hence  the  wedge  is  made  as 
thin     as     is     consistent     with 
strength.      This   varies   all   the 
way   from   hollow   ground   raz- 
ors   to    cold-chisels.     For    soft 
wood,    the    cutting    angle     (or 
bevel,     or     bezel)     of     chisels, 

gouges  and  plane-irons,  is  small,  even  as  low  as  20° ;  for  hard  wood, 
it  must  be  greater.  For  metals,  it  varies  from  54°  for  wrought  iron 
to  66°  for  gun  metal. 


Fig-.  61 


Fig.  62 


Edg-e  and  Wedge  Ac-     Edge  and  Wedg-e  A.C- 
tion  With  the  Grain,    tion  Across  the  Grain. 


WOOD   HAND  TOOLS. 


53 


r 


Ordinarily  a  cutting  tool  should  be  so  applied  that  the  face  near- 
est the  material  lies  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  direction  of  the  cut 
desired,  sufficient  clearance  being  necessary  to  insure  contact  of  the 
actual  edge. 

There  are  two  methods  of  using  edge  tools:  one,  the  chisel  or 
straight  cut,  by  direct  pressure;  the  other,  the  knife  or  sliding  cut. 

The  straight  cut,  Fig.  63,  takes  place 
when  the  tool  is  moved  into  the  mate- 
rial at  right  angles  to  the  cutting  edge. 
Examples  are:  the  action  of  metal- 
working  tools  and  planing  machines, 
rip-sawing,  turning,  planing  (when  the 
plane  is  held  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the 
board  being  planed),  and  chiseling, 
when  the  chisel  is  pushed  directly  in 
line  with  its  length. 

The  knife  or  sliding  cut,  Fig.  64, 
takes  place  when  the  tool  is  moved  for- 
ward obliquely  to  its  cutting  edge, 
either  along  or  across  the  grain.  It  is 
well  illustrated  in  cutting  soft  mate- 
rials, such  as  bread,  meat,  rubber,  cork, 

etc.  It  is  an  advantage  in  delicate  chiseling  and  gouging.  That  this 
sliding  action  is  easier  than  the  straight  pressure  can  easily  be  proved 
with  a  penknife  on  thin  wood,  or  by  planing  with  the  plane  held  at 
an  angle  to,  rather  than  in  line  with,  the  direction  of  the  planing 
motion.  The  edge  of  the  cutter  then  slides  into  the  material. 
The  reason  why  the  sliding  cut  is  easier,  is  partly  because  the  angle 
of  the  bevel  with  the  wood  is  reduced  by  holding  the  tool  obliquely, 
and  partly  because  even  the  sharpest  cutting  edge  is  notched  with 
very  fine  teeth  all  along  its  edge  so  that  in  the  sliding  cut  it  acts 
like  a  saw.  In  an  auger-bit,  both  methods  of  cutting  take  place  at 
once.  The  scoring  nib  cuts  with  a  sliding  cut,  while  the  cutting  lip 
is  thrust  directly  into  the  wood. 

The  chisel  and  the  knife,  one  with  the  edge  on  the  end,  and  the 
other  with  the  edge  on  the  side,  are  the  original  forms  of  all  modern 
cutting  tools. 

The  chisel  was  at  first  only  a  chipped  stone,  then  it  came  to  be  a 
ground  stone,  later  it  was  made  of  bronze,  and  still  later  of  iron,  and 


Fig.  63 
Straight  Cut. 


Fie.  64 
Sliding  Cut. 


54 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


now  it  is  made  of  steel.  In  its  early  form  it  is  known  by  archeolo- 
gists  as  a  celt.,  and  at  first  had  no  handle,  but  later  developed 
into  the  ax  and  adze  for  chopping  and  hewing,  and  the  chisel  for 
cuts  made  by  driving  and  paring.  It  is  quite  likely  that  the  celt 
itself  was  simply  a  development  of  the  wedge. 

In  the  modern  chisel,  all  the  grinding  is  done  on  one  side.  This 
constitutes  the  essential  feature  of  the  chisel,  namely,  that  the  back 
of  the  blade  is  kept  perfectly  fiat  and  the  face  is  ground  to  a  bevel. 
Blades  vary  in  width  from  1/16  inch  to  2  inches.  Next  to  the  blade 
on  the  end  of  which  is  the  cutting  edge,  is  the  shank,  Fig.  65.  Next, 

as  in  socketed 


Blade            Shank        Jang 

cmbeis,      inert; 
is    the    socket 
to  receive  the 
handle,  or,  in 
tanged  chisels, 
a  shoulder  and 
four  -  sided 
tang  which  is 
driven    into 

)__           ~^^^d^===^=- 

fc/                         Xou/fa?      _V«™//e  

(ferrule 

J 

Fig-.  65.    Firmer-Chisel. 

the  handle,  which  is  bound  at  its  lower  end  by  a  ferrule.    The  handle 
is  usually  made  of  apple  wood. 

The  most  familiar  form  is  the  firmer- chisel,  Fig.  65,  which  is  said 
to  get  its  name  from  the  fact  that  it  is  firmer  or  stiffer  than  the 
paring-chisel.    (See  below.)    The  firmer- 
chisel   is   a   general   utility   tool,   being 
suited    for    hand    pressure    or    mallet 
pounding,  for  paring  or  for  light  mor- 
tising. 

Different  varieties  of  chisels  are 
named;  (1)  according  to  their  uses;  as 
paring-chisels,  framing-chisels,  mortise- 
chisels,  carving-chisels,  turning-chisels, 
etc. 

The  paring-chisel,  Fig.  66,  has  a 
handle  specially  shaped  to  give  control 
over  its  movements,  and  a  long  thin 
blade,  which  in  the  best  form  is  beveled 
on  the  two  edges  to  facilitate  grooving. 


Fig-.  66  Figr.  67  Fig-.  68 
Paring--  Framing--  Mortise- 
Chisel.  Chisel.  Chisel. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


55 


It  is  intended  only  for  steady  pressure  with  the  hand  and  not  for  use 
with  a  mallet. 

The  framing-chisel,  Fig.  67,  is  thick  and  heavy  and  was  formerly 
much  used  in  house  framing.  It  is  usually  made  with  the  handle 
fitting  into  a  socket  on  the  shank,  in  order  to  withstand  the  shock  of 
heavy  blows  from  the  mallet. 

The  mortise-chisel,  Fig.  68, 
is  made  abnormally  thick  to 
give  the  stiffness  necessary  for 
levering  the  waste  out  of 
mortises. 

(2)  Chisels  are  also  named 
according  to  their  shapes; 
as,  skew-chisels,  corner-chisels, 
round-nosed  chisels,  etc. 

The  angle  of  the  bevel  of  a 
chisel  is  determined  by  the  kind 
of  wood  for  which  it  is  most 
used,  hard  wood  requiring  a 
wider  angle  than  soft  wood,  in 
order  to  support  the  edge.  For 

ordinary  work,  the  bevel  is  correctly  ground  to  an  angle  of  about  20°, 
The  chisel  is  a  necessary  tool  in  making  almost  every  kind  of  joint. 
It  may  almost  be  said  that  one  mark  of  a  good  workman  is  his  pref- 
erence for  the  chisel.  Indeed  an  excellent  motto  for  the  woodworker 
is:  ffWhen  in  doubt,  use  a  chisel". 

In  general,  there  are  two  uses  for  the  chisel  ( 1 ) ,  when  it  is  driven 
by  a  push  with  the  hand,  as  in  paring,  and  (2),  when  it  is  driven 
by  blows  of  a  mallet,  as  in  digging  mortises. 

In  relation  to  the  grain  of  the  wood,  it  is  used  in  three  directions : 
(1)  longitudinally,  that  is  with  the  grain,  called  paring;  (2)  laterally, 
across  the  surface,  called  cutting  sidewise;  (3)  transversely,  that  is 
across  the  end,  called  cutting  end-wood. 

1.  Paring.  To  remove  shavings  rapidly,  the  chisel  is  held  flat 
side  up,  the  handle  grasped  by  the  right  hand,  with  the  thumb 
pointing  toward  the  shank,  and  the  blade  held  in  the  left  hand,  as 
in  Fig.  69.  Held  in  this  way  great  control  can  be  exerted  and  much 
force  applied.  For  paring  the  surface  as  flat  and  smooth  as  possible, 
the  chisel  should  be  reversed,  that  is,  held  so  that  the  flat  side  will 


Fig-.  69.    Paring-  With  a  Chisel. 


56 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


act  as  a  guide.  Held  in  this  way  the  chisel  has  no  equal  for  paring 
except  the  plane.  Paring  with  the  chisel  is  the  method  used  in 
cutting  stop  chamfers.  (See  p.  184.)  By  holding  the  cutting  edge 

obliquely  to  the  direction  of 
the  grain  and  of  the  cut.  the 
effective  "sliding  cut"  is  ob- 
tained, Fig.  64. 


Fig-.  70     Chiseling-  Out  a  Dado 
(First  Step). 


Fig.  71.  Chiseling  Out  a  Dado 
(Second  Step). 


2.  In  sidewise  chiseling  the  chisel  is  held  in  the  same  manner  as 
in  paring.  A  typical  form  of  sidewise  chiseling  is  the  cutting  out 
of  a  dado,  Fig.  70.  The  work  may  be  placed  on  the  bench-hook  or 

held  in  the  vise,  with  the  side  up 
from  which  the  groove  is  to  be  cut. 
The  chisel  is  pushed  directly  across 
the  grain,  the  blade  being  somewhat 
inclined  to  the  upper  surface  so  as 
to  cut  off  a  corner  next  the  saw 
kerf.  After  a  few  cuts  thus  made 
with  the  chisel  inclined  alternately 
both  ways,  the  ridge  thus  formed  is 
taken  off,  Fig.  71.  In  this  way  the 
surface  is  lowered  to  the  required 
depth.  If  more  force  be  required, 
the  palm  of  the  hand  may  be  used 
as  a  mallet. 

3.  In  chiseling  end-wood,  it  is 
well,  if  possible,  to  rest  the  piece  to 
be  trimmed  flat  on  the  cutting  board 
or  on  a  piece  of  waste  wood.  Work 
done  in  this  way  is  often  called  per- 
pendicular chiseling,  Fig.  72.  The 
handle  is  grasped  in  the  right  hand, 


.  72.    Perpendicular  Chiseling-. 


WOOD   HAND  TOOLS. 


57 


thumb  up,  while  the  blade  of  the  chisel  passes  between  the  thumb  and 
first  finger  of  the  left  hand,  the  back  of  which  rests  on  the  work  and 
holds  it  in  place.  As  the  right  hand  pushes  the  chisel  downwards  the 
thumb  and  first  finger  of  the  left  hand  control  its  motion.  When  chis- 
eling it  is  well  to  stand  so  as  to  look  along 
the  line  being  cut.  Incline  the  chisel  to- 
ward you,  and  use  the  near  part  of  the 
cutting  edge  for  a  guide  and  the  farther 
corner  for  cutting,  pushing  the  handle  both 
down  and  forward  at  the  same  time,  Fig. 
73.  Or,  by  pushing  the  chisel  sidewise  with 
the  thumb  of  the  left  hand  at  the  same 
time  that  the  right  hand  pushes  it  down- 
ward, the  effective  sliding  cut  is  obtained. 
End  chiseling  requires  considerable 
force  and  therefore  only  thin  shavings 


Fig.  73.    Chiseling-  End  Wood. 

should  be  cut  off  at  a 
time.  Or  the  mallet  may 
be  used  with  caution.  In 
order  to  leave  a  smootli 
surface  the  chisel  must 
be  very  sharp.  Even  then 
the  lower  arris  (corner) 
is  likely  to  be  splin- 
tered off.  This  can  be 
prevented  by  clamping 


Fig-.  74.     Paring  a  Corner  Round 

the  work  down  tight  with  a  handscrew 
to  a  perfectly  smooth  cutting  board.  It 
is  often  advisable  however,  to  set  the 
piece  upright  in  the  vise  and  pare  off 
thin  shavings  horizontally,  Fig.  74.  In 
rounding  a  corner,  both  this  and  per- 
pendicular chiseling  are  common  meth- 
ods. In  both  cases  care  should  be  taken 
to  cut  from  the  side  toward  the  end 
and  not  into  the  grain,-  lest  the  piece 
split,  Fig.  75.  In  horizontal  end  par- 


ig.  75.   Right  and  Wrong  Waj-s 
of  Perpendicular  Chiseling. 


58 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


ing,  Fig.  74,  in  order  to  prevent  splin- 
tering, it  is  well  to  trim  down  the  arrises 
diagonally  to  the  line  and  then  to  re- 
duce the  rest  of  the  end  surface. 

In  all  hand  chiseling,  it  is  a  wise 
precaution  not  to  try  to  cut  out  much; 
material  at  each  stroke  but  to  work 
back  gradually  to  the  line. 

A  typical  form  of  mallet  chiseling  is 
the  digging  of  a  mortise,  Fig.  76.  (See 
also  p.  56.)  The  chisel  is  held  perpen- 
dicular in  the  left  hand,  while  the  right 
hand  drives  blows  with  the  mallet.  The 
hammer  should  never  be  used.  (See 
mallet,  p.  96.)  By  rocking  the  chisel 
and  at  the  same  time  giving  it  a  twisting 
motion  while  the  edge  is  kept  on  the 
wood,  the  edge  can  be  stepped  to  the 
exact  place  desired.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  work  back  to  the  lines  gradu- 
ally, to  cut  only  part  way  thru  from 
Fig.  76.  Maiiet  chiseling-.  The  Piece  each  side  (in  the  case  of  a  thru  mor- 
Clawi?SdthDe0Be"c0h-HoeokBench  tise-and-tenon) ,  and  to  keep  the  cut 

faces  perpendicular  to  the  surfaces. 
In  sharpening  a  chisel  it  is  of  first  importance  that  the  back  be 

kept   perfectly   flat.     The   bevel   is   first   ground   on   the   grindstone 

to  an   angle   of   about   20°, 

and    great    care    should   be 

taken    to     keep     the    edge 

straight  and  at  right  angles 

to   the   sides   of   the   blade. 

(S;ee   also   p.    117.) 

After  grinding  it  is  nec- 
essary   to    whet    the    chisel 

and  other  edged  tools.   (See 

also  under  oilstones,  p.  121.) 

First     see     that     there     is 

plenty  of  oil  on  the  stone. 

If  an  iron  box  be  used,  Fig. 


77,  the  oil  is  obtained  sim- 
ply   by    turning    the    stone 


Fig-.  77.    Whetting-  a  Plane-Bit. 


WOOD   HAND  TOOLS. 


59 


Fig.  78.     Grinding  Angle,  20°; 
Whetting- Angle,  25°. 


over,  for  it  rests  on  a  pad  of  felt  which  is  kept  wet  with  kerosene. 
Place  the  beveled  edge  flat  on  the  stone,  feeling  to  see  if  it  does 

lie  flat,  then  tip  up  the  chisel  and  rub  it  at  an  angle  slightly  more 

obtuse  than  that  which  it  was  ground,  Fig.  78.    The  more  nearly  the 

chisel  can  be  whetted  at  the  an- 
gle at  which  it  was  ground  the 
better.  In  rubbing,  use  as 
much  of  the  stone  as  possible, 
so  as  to  wear  it  down  evenly. 
The  motion  may  be  back  and 
forth  or  spiral,  but  in  either 
case  it  should  be  steady  and  not 

rocking.    This  whetting  turns  a  light  wire  edge  over  on  the  flat  side. 

In  order  to  remove  this  wire  edge,  the  back  of  the  chisel,  that  is,  the 

straight,  unbeveled  side,  is  held  perfectly  flat  on  the  whetstone  and 

rubbed,  then  it  is  turned  over  and  the  bevel  rubbed  again  on  the  stone. 

It  is  necessary  to  reverse  the  chisel  in  this  way  a  number  of  times,  in 

order  to  remove  the  wire  edge,  but  the  chisel  should  never  be  tipped 

so  as  to  put  any  bevel  at  all  on  its  flat  side.     Finally,  the  edge  is 

touched  up  (stropped)  by  being  drawn  a  few  times,  first  on  one  side, 

then  on  the  other,  over  a  piece  of  leather,  still  continuing  to  hold 

the  chisel  so  as  to  keep  the  bevel  perfect. 

To  test  the  sharpness  of  a  whetted  edge, 

draw  the  tip  of  the  finger  or  thumb  lightly 

along  it,  Fig.  79.    If  the  edge  be  dull,  it  will 

feel  smooth;    if  it  be  sharp,  and  if  care  be 

taken,    it   will    score   the   skin   a   little,   not 

enough  to  cut  thru,  but  just  enough  to  be  felt. 
The  gouge  is  a  form  of  chisel,  the  blade 

of   which    is    concave,    and    hence    the    edge 

curved.     When  the  bevel  is  on  the   outside, 

the  common  form,  it  is  called  an  outside  bevel 

gouge  or  simply  a  "gouge/'  Fig.  80;    if  the 

bevel  is  on  the  inside,  it  is  called  an  inside 

bevel,  or  inside  ground,  or  scribing-gouge,  or  paring-gouge,  Fig.  81.3 


Fig.  79.  Testing  the  Sharpness 
of  a  Chisel. 


8  Another  confusing  nomenclature  (Gross)  gives  the  name  "inside  gouges" 
to  those  with  the  cutting  edge  on  the  inside,  and  "outside  gouges"  to  those 
with  the  cutting  edge  on  the  outside. 


60 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


fi 

f 

? 

1 

—— 

1 

! 

Fie.  80           Fig.  81 
Firmer-         Inside 
GnugeOut-        Bevel 
side  Bevel.      Gouge. 

Carving  tools  are,  properly  speaking,  all 
chisels,  and  are  of  different  shapes  for  facility  in 
carving. 

For  ordinary  gouging,  Fig.  82,  the  blade  is 
gripped  firmly  by  the  left  hand  with  the  knuck- 
les up,  so  that  a  strong  control  can  be  exerted 
over  it.  The  gouge  is  manipulated  in  much  the 
same  way  as  the  chisel,  and  like  the  chisel  it  is 
used  longitudinally,  laterally,  and  transversely. 

In  working  with  the  grain,  by  twisting  the 
blade  on  its  axis  as  it  moves  forward,  delicate 
paring  cuts  may  be  made.  This  is  particularly 
necessary  in  working  cross-grained  wood,  and  is 
a  good  illustration  of  the  advantage  of  the  slid- 
ing cut. 

In  gouging  out  broad  surfaces  like  trays  or 
saddle  seats  it  will  be  found  of  great  advantage 

to  work  laterally,  that  is  across  the  surface,  especially  in  even  grained 

woods  as  sweet  gum.    The  tool  is  not  so  likely  to  slip  off  and  run  in 

as  when  working  with  the  grain. 

The  gouge  that  is  commonly  used  for  cutting  concave  outlines 

on  end  grain,  is  the  inside  bevel  gouge.     Like  the  chisel  in  cutting 

convex    outlines,  it  is  pushed  or    driven  perpendicularly    thru    the 

wood  laid  flat  on  a  cutting  board  on  the  bench,  as  in  perpendicular 

chiseling,  Fig.  72,  p.  56. 

In  sharpening  an  outside  bevel  gouge,  the  main  bevel  is  obtained 

on  the  grindstone,  care  being  taken  to  keep  the  gouge  rocking  on  its 

axis,  so  as  to  get  an  even  curve. 

It   is   then   whetted   on   the   flat 

side  of  a  slipstone,  Fig.  83,  the 

bevel    already    obtained    on    the 

grindstone    being   made    slightly 

more  obtuse  at  the  edge.    A  good 

method  is  to  rock  the  gouge  on 

its  axis  with  the  left  hand,  while 

the   slipstone   held    in   the    right 

hand  is  rubbed  back  and  forth  on 

the  edge.     Then  the  concave  side 

is  rubbed  on  the  round  edge  of 


Fig.  82.     Gouging-. 


WOOD   HAND  TOOLS. 


61 


the  slipstone,  care  being  taken 

to  avoid  putting  a  bevel  on  it. 

Inside  bevel  gouges  need  to  be 

ground  on  a  carborundum  or 

other  revolving  stone  having  a 

round  edge.     The  outfit  of  the 

agacite  grinder,   (Fig.  224,  p. 

120),    contains    one    of   these 

stones.       The     whetting,     of 

course,  is  the  reverse  of  that 

on  the  outside  bevel  gouge. 
The  knife  differs  from  the 

chisel  in  two  respects,  (1)  the 

edge  is  along  the  side  instead 

of  the  end,  and   (2)   it  has  a 

two-beveled  edge.     Knives  are 

sometimes  made  with  one  side 

flat  for  certain  kinds  of  paring  work,  but  these  are  uncommon.     The 

two-beveled  edge  is  an  advantage  to  the  worker  in  enabling  him  to 
cut  into  the  wood  at  any  angle,  but  it  is  a  disadvan- 
tage in  that  it  is  incapable  of  making  flat  surfaces. 
The  knife  is  particularly  valuable  in  woodwork 
for  scoring  and  for  certain,  emergencies.  The  sloyd 
knife,  Fig.  84,  is  a  tool  likely  to  be  misused  in  the 
hands  of  small  children,  but  when  sharp  and  in 
strong  hands,  has  many  valuable  uses.  A  conveni- 
ent size  has  a  2^2  inch  blade.  When  grinding  and 
whetting  a  knife,  the  fact  that  both  sides  are  beveled 
alike  should  be  kept  in  mind. 


83.     Whetting-  a  Gouge. 


fS-S 

fir 

i 

j 

Fig.  84 
Sloyd  Knife 


Fig.  85      Draw-Knife. 


The  draw-knife,  Fig.  85,  is  ground  like  a  chisel,  with  the  bevel 
only  on  one  side,  but  the  edge  is  along  the  side  like  a  knife.    Instead 


62  HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 

of  being  pushed  into  the  wood,  like  a  chisel,  it  is  drawn  into  it  by  the 
handles  which  project  in  advance  of  the  cutting  edge.  The  handles 
are  sometimes  made  to  fold  over  the  edge,  and  thus  protect  it  when 
not  in  use.  The  size  is  indicated  by  the  length  of  the  cutting 
edge.  It  is  particularly  useful  in  reducing  narrow  surfaces  and  in 
slicing  off  large  pieces,  but  it  is  liable  to  split  rather  than  cut  the 
wood. 

SAWS. 


The  object  of  the  saw  is  to  cut  thru 
a  piece  of  material  along  a  determined 
line.  Its  efficiency  depends  upon  (1) 

Fig-.  86  Hand- saw.  the  narrowness  of  the  saw  cut  or  "kerf/' 

and  (2)  upon  the  force  required  to  drive 

it  thru  the  material.  The  thinner  the  blade,  the  less  material  will  be 
cut  out  and  wasted,  and  the  less  force  will  have  to  be  applied.  In 
order  to  have  the  saw  as  thin  as  possible,  almost  all  the  people  of 
the  world,  except  the  Anglo  Saxons,  have  saws  that  cut  when  they 
are  pulled  toward  the  worker.  The  blade  is  in  tension  while  cutting 
and  in  compression  only  when  being  returned  for  a  new  cut.  German 
carpenters  use  a  saw  like  our  turning-saw.  English  and  Americans 
have  developed  the  saw  on  the  opposite  principle,  namely,  that  it 
should  cut  on  the  pushing  stroke.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  crosscut- 
saw  cuts  somewhat  on  the  back  stroke.  The  pushing  stroke  necessi- 
tates a  thickening  of  the  blade  sufficient  to  prevent  buckling, — a  not 
uncommon  occurrence  in  the  hands  of  a  novice,  in  spite  of  this  thick- 
ening. But  tho  this  requires  more  force,  and  involves  more  waste, 
there  are  the  compensations  that  the  arm  can  exert  more  pressure  in 
pushing  than  in  pulling,  especially  when  the  worker  stands  upright 
or  stoops  over  his  work,  and  the  stiffer  wide  blade  acts  as  a  guide  to 
the  sawyer.  Each  method  has  its  advantages.  Whatever  may  be  true 
of  hand-saws,  in  machine-saws  the  tension  method,  as  illustrated  by 
the  gang-saw  and  the  band-saw,  is  steadily  displacing  the  compres- 
sion method  utilized  in  the  circular-saw.  Many  kinds  of  work,  how- 
ever, can  be  clone  only  on  the  circular-saw. 

In  order  to  diminish  the  disadvantages  of  the  thrusting  stroke,  the 
modern  hand-saw,  Fig.  86,  has  been  gradually  improved  as  the  re- 
sult of  much  experience  and  thought.  The  outline  of  the  blade  is 
tapered  in  width  from  handle  to  point;  it  is  thicker  also  at  the 


WOOD   HAND  TOOLS.  63 

heel  (the  handle  end)  than  at  the  point;  its  thickness  also  tapers 
from  the  teeth  to  the  back.  All  these  tapers  gives  stiffness  where 
it  is  most  needed.  It  is  made  wide  for  the  sake  of  giving  stead- 
iness in  sawing.  The  fact  that  it  is  thinner  at  the  back  than  along 
the  teeth  gives  it  clearance  in  passing  back  and  forth  in  the  kerf,  but 
the  friction  is  still  great,  especally  in  sawing  soft  or  damp  wood.  To 
avoid  this  binding  still  further,  the  teeth  are  "set"  alternately  one  to 
one  side  and  the  next  to  the  other,  and  so  on. 


i    L    r 


C' 


Fig-.  87.    Rip  Saw  Teeth:    A- edge  view,  B-side  view,  C  cross-section. 
Crosscut-Saw  Teeth:     A'  -edge  view,  B'  -side  view,  C'  -cross -section. 

The  size  of  saws  is  indicated  by  the  length  of  the  blade  in  inches. 
The  coarseness  of  the  teeth  is  indicated  by  the  number  of  "points"  to 
the  inch.  "Points"  should  not  be  confused  with  teeth  as  there  is 
always  one  more  point  per  inch  than  there  are  teeth.  For  example,  a 
five  point  rip-saw  has  five  points  to  the  inch  but  only  four  full  teeth, 
Fig.  87.  Rip-saws  run  from  4  to  7  points  per  inch;  crosscut-saws 
from  6  to  12  points  per  inch. 

In  general,  saws  are  of  two  kinds,  rip-saws  and  crosscut-saws. 

The  rip-saw,  Fig.  87,  may  be  thought  of  as  a  series  of  chisels  set 
in  two  parallel  rows  which  overlap  each  other,  for  each  tooth  is  filed 
to  a  sharp  edge  which,  at  each  stroke,  chisels  off  a  small  particle  from 
the  end  of  the  wood  fibers. 

The  shape  of  the  teeth  is  the  result  of  experience  in  uniting  a 
number  of  factors :  as,  strength  of  the  individual  tooth,  the  acuteness 
of  the  cutting  angle,  and  the  ease  of  sharpening.  The  steel  of  a  saw 
is  softer  than  that  of  a  chisel,  in  order  that  it  may  be  filed  and  set. 
Hence  it  is  weaker  and  the  edge  cannot  be  so  acute.  A  typical  form 
of  tooth  is  shown  in  Fig.  87,  in  which  A  is  an  edge  view,  B  the  side 
view,  and  C  a  cross  section.  The  angle  of  each  tooth  covers  60°,  one 
side,  the  "face",  being  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  teeth.  The 
cutting  edge  runs  at  right  angles  to  the  sides  of  the  blade. 

This  arrangement  works  with  entire  success  along  the  grain,  but 
if  a  rip-saw  is  used  to  cut  across  the  grain,  since  there  is  no  provision 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


for  cutting  thru  the  fibers,  each  tooth  catches  in  them  and  tears  them 
out,  thus  leaving  a  rough  and  jagged  surface. 

In  the  crosscut-saw,  therefore,  the  teeth  are  filed  to  points,  and 
the  cutting  edge  is  on  the  forward  side  of  each  alternate  tooth.  In 
Fig.  87,  A'  is  the  edge  view,  B'  is  the  side  view  and  C'  is  a  cross-sec- 
tion. In  a  properly  filed  crosscut-saw  a  needle  will  slide  between 
these  two  rows  of  teeth  from  one  end  of  the  saw  to  the  other. 

I  n  action  the 
points,  especially  their 
forward  edges,  cut  or 
score  the  fibres  of 
wood,  and  then  the  tri- 
angular elevation  of 
vrood  left  between  the 
two  rows  of  points  is 
crumbled  off  by  fric- 
tion as  the  saw  passes 
thru.  Thus  it  drops 
farther  and  farther 
into  the  cut.  A 
crosscut-saw  may  be 
thought  of  as  a  series 
of  knife  points,  ar- 
ranged in  two  parallel 
rows.  Ordinarily  the 
angle  of  the  "face"  of 
each  tooth  with  the 
line  of  the  teeth  is 
about  65°,  and  slightly 
steeper  than  the  back 

of  the  tooth.     The  angle  of  the  cutting  edge  of  each  tooth  may  be 
filed  more  acute  when  the  saw  is  to  be  used  for  soft  wood  only. 

A  crosscut-saw  when  used  to  rip  a  board,  works  slowly,  for  there 
is  no  chisel  action  to  cut  out  the  fibres  between  the  points,  but  the  cut , 
tho  slow,  is  smooth.  In  cutting  diagonally  across  a  piece  of  wood, 
especially  soft  wood,  a  rip-saw  cuts  faster,  but  a  crosscut,  smoother. 
In  ripping  a  board,  allowance  should  always  be  made  for  planing 
to  the  line  afterward.  In  starting  a  cut  with  the  rip-saw,  the  weight 
of  the  saw  should  be  borne  by  the  right  hand  so  that  the  teeth  may 


Fig-.  88.     Rip-Sawing- on  a  Horse. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


65 


pass  over  the  edge  of  the  wood  as  lightly  as  possible.  The  left  thumb 
acts  as  a  guide.  If  the  saw  be  handled  thus,  and  the  angle  with  the 
board  be  quite  acute,  it  is  not  necessary  to  start  with  a  back  stroke. 
When  the  kerf  is  well  started,  the  whole  weight  of  the  saw  may  be 
applied.  An  easy  light  stroke  is  better  than  a  furious  one.  The  line 
should  be  followed  carefully,  but  if  the  saw  runs  from  the  line  it  may 
be  brought  back  by  taking  short  strokes  near  the  point  of  the  saw 
and  twisting  the  blade  slightly  in  the  desired  direction.  If  the  saw 
binds  and  buckles  because  of  the  springing  together  of  the  wood,  the 
kerf  may  be  wedged  open  with  a  screwdriver  or  a  bit  of  waste  wood. 
A  drop  of  oil  rubbed  across  each  side  of  the  saw  will  make  it  work 
more  easily. 

Care  should  be 
taken  in  finishing  a 
out  to  hold  up  firmly 
the  part  of  the  wood 
which  is  being  sawn 
off  so  that  it  will  nol 
split  off  or  splinter. 

Sawing  may  be 
done  either  on  a  saw- 
horse,  Fig.  88,  or  at 
a  bench.  For  big, 
rough  work,  the  for- 
mer is  the  common 

way,  the  worker  holding  the  material  in  place  with  one  knee,  because 
this  method  enables  him  to  exert  his  greatest  strength.  A  convenient 
way  for  rip-sawing  a  small  piece  of  wood  is  to  insert  it  in  the  vise, 
Fig.  89,  with  the  broad  side  of  the  board  parallel  to  the  vise  screw, 
and  the  board  inclined  away  from  the  worker  who  stands  upright. 
The  start  is  easy,  the  sawdust  does  not  cover  the  line,  and  the  board 
is  not  in  danger  of  splitting.  The  board,  however,  has  to  be  reversed 
after  it  is  sawn  part  way  thru,  in  order  to  finish  the  saw  cut. 

The  lack-saw  or  tenon-saw,  Fig.  90,  is  a  fine  crosscut-saw,  with 
a  rib  of  steel  along  the  back,  which  gives  to  it  its  name.  Since  it  is 
intended  for  small  accurate  work,  the  teeth  have  little  or  no  set. 

In  sawing,  the  wood  may  be  held  either  in  the  vise  or  on  the 
bench-hook.  To  help  start  the  saw  and  at  the  same  time  to  keep 
the  edges  of  the  cut  sharp,  it  is  well  to  make  a  little  groove 


Fig-.  89.     Rip-sawing-  with  Wood  Held  in 
Bench-Vise. 


66 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


Fig-.  90.    Using  the  Back-Saw 
with  Bench-Hook. 


with    the    knife,    on   the   waste 

side  of  the  line  to  be  followed, 

cutting  the  side   of  the  groove 

next  to  the  line  at  right  angles 

to  the  surface.     The  saw  drops 

directly   into   this  groove,  Fig. 

91.       In  starting  the  saw  cut, 

the   saw    should    be   guided   by 

holding  the  thumb  of  the  left 

hand    against   the    side   of    the 

saw  just  above  the  teeth.     Until  the  kerf  is  well  started,  the  saw 

should  be  held  so  that  the  teeth  just  touch  the  wood.    It  is  better  not 

to  attempt  to  start  the  saw  level,  i.  e., 
with  the  teeth  resting  clear  across  the 
wood,  but  the  handle  should  be  raised 
so  that  the  start  is  made  only  at  the 
farther  edge  of  the  wood.  Then  as  the 
saw  is  gradually  lowered,  the  kerf  will 
extend  quite  across  the  wood,  Fig.  92. 
When  the  back-saw  is  used  for  ripping, 
the  wood  is  held  in  the  vise,  end  up. 
Begin  sawing  as  in  crosscutting,  that  is, 
at  the  farther  corner  with  the  handle 
end  of  the  saw  up,  and  gradually  drop 
the  handle.  Watch  the  lines  on  both 
the  front  and  back  sides,  and  if  neces- 
sary, reverse  the  piece  to  follow  them. 

The  dovetail-saw,  Fig.  93,  is  a  small  back-saw  for  delicate  work. 
The  compass-saw,  Fig.  94,  is  narrow,  pointed,  thick,  to  prevent 


Fig-.  91.     Starting- a  Saw  Cut  in  a 
Trough  Cut  With  Knife. 


Fig-.  93.     Dovetail-Saw. 


Fig.  92.    Direction  of  the  Back-Saw. 


Fig.  94.     Compass-Saw. 


WOOD   HAND  TOOLS. 


67 


buckling,  and  with  a  wide  set  to  the  teeth,  to  help  in  following  the 
curves.  The  teeth  are  a  cross  between  the  rip  and  crosscut  teeth.  It 
is  used  in  sawing  curves. 

The  turning-saw,  Fig.  95,  is  a  narrow  saw,  set  in  a  frame,  which 

stretches  the  saw  tight,  so  that 
it  works  as  a  tension  saw  (cf. 
p.  62.  The  best  frames  are 
made  so  that  the  handles  which 
hold  the  blade  can  revolve  in 
the  frame.  The  turning-saw  is 
used  chiefly  for  cutting  curves. 
A  14  inch  blade,  3/16  of  an  inch 


Fig.  95.  Using  a  Turning-Saw. 


use.  The  teeth  are  like  those 
of  a  rip-saw,  so  that  they  are 
quite  likely  to  tear  the  wood  in 
cutting  across  the  grain.  Al- 
lowance should  be  made  for  this 
jirid  the  surplus  removed  with 

a  spokeshave.     The  turning-saw  may  be  used  to  cut  on  either  the 

pulling  or  the  pushing  stroke,  with  the  teeth  pointed  either  toward 

or  away  from  the  worker.     The  pulling  cut  is  generally  better,  as  it 

puts  less  strain  on  the  frame  than  the  pushing  cut.     Both  hands 

should  grasp  the  frame  as  near  the  end  of  the  blade  as  possible, 

Fig.  95.     Turns  are  made  by  revolving  the  frame  on  the  blade  as  an 

axis,   which 

should  always 

be     kept     at 

right      angles 

to  the  surface 

of  the  board. 

Care      should 

be   taken   not 

to    twist    the 

blade. 

To  file  and 

set  a  saw,  the 

saw     is     first 

fastened      in 


68 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


the  saw-vise,  Fig.  96,  with  the  teeth  up.  It  is  then  top-jointed  by 
running  a  flat  file  or  a  saw- jointer,  Fig.  97,  back  and  forth  length- 
wise along  the  tops  of  the 
teeth  to  bring  them  to  a  level. 
After  jointing  the  saw  should 
be  set.  For  this  purpose  a  saw- 
set,  Fig.  98,  is  necessary.  Ev- 
ery alternate  tooth  is  bent  in 
the  direction  of  its  set  by  the 
plunger  in  the  instrument 
Fi^.97.  A  saw- jointer.  pushing  against  the  anvil, 

which  is  an  adjustable  eccentric 

disc.  After  the  saw  is  set,  it  is  filed.  This  is  done  with  a  triangular 
file,  Fig.  144,  p.  90,  which  is  held  in  the  right  hand  and  its  point  in 
the  thumb  and  fingers  of  the  left.  Pressure  is  applied  only  on  the 
forward  stroke,  which  should  be 


Fig-.  98.     Saw-Set. 


long   and   even,   the   file   being 

raised   above   the   tooth   on  the 

return  stroke.     The  file  should 

cut  in  the  direction  of  the  set, 

that   is,    the   teeth   having   the 

set     away     from     the     worker 

are  filed  first.     Every  alternate 

tooth,  1st,  3d,  5th,  etc.,  is  filed,  and  then  the  saw  is  reversed  and  the 

other  set,  the  3d,  4th,  6th,  etc.,  is  filed. 

In  filing  a  rip-saw  the  file  should  move  exactly  perpendicularly 
to  the  plane  of  the  saw  blade,  that  is,  directly  across  the  teeth.  The 
filing  is  done  on  the  back  of  the  teeth,  the  file  just  touching  the  face 
of  the  next  one.  The  filing  is  continued,  with  one,  two,  or  three 
strokes,  for  each  tooth,  as  the  case  may  require,  or  just  until  each 
tooth  is  sharp. 

In  filing  a  crosscut-saw,  the  file  is  held  pointing  upward  and  to- 
ward the  point  of  the  saw.  The  file  should  cut  in  the  direction  of 
the  set.  The  angle  of  the  cutting  edge  is  determined  by  the  hori- 
zontal inclination  of  the  file  to  the  blade ;  the  angle  of  the  point  is 
determined  by  the  perpendicular  inclination  of  the  file  to  the  blade. 
Finally  the  sides  of  the  teeth  are  rubbed  lightly  with  a  slipstone 
to  remove  the  wire  edge.  It  should  always  be  remembered  that  a  saw 
is  an  edge  tool,  and  its  edges  are  as  liable  to  injury  as  any  edges. 


WOOD   HAND  TOOLS. 


69 


PLANES. 

The  plane  is  a  modified  chisel.  The  chief  difference  in  action 
between  a  chisel  and  a  plane  in  paring  is  this :  the  back  of  the  chisel 
lies  close  down  on  the  surface  of  the  wood  that  is  cut,  and  acts  as  a 
guide;  whereas,  in  the  plane,  the  cutter  is  elevated  at  an  angle  away 
from  the  surface  of  the  wood,  and  only  its  cutting  edge  touches  the 
wood,  and  it  is  held  and  guided  mechanically  by  the  plane  mechan- 


Fig-.  99.  Adjustable  Chisel-Gage.    Fig-.  100.     Wooden  Bench-Plane. 

ism.  In  other  words,  a  plane  is  a  chisel  firmly  held  in  a  device  which 
raises  the  cutter  at  an  angle  from  the  work,  regulates  the  depth  of 
the  cut,  and  favors  the  cutting  rather  than  the  splitting  action.  An 
illustration  of  a  chisel  converted  into  a  plane  is  the  adjustable  chisel- 
gage,  Fig.  99. 

The  plane  has  developed  as  follows:   it  was  first  a  chisel  held  in 
a  block  of  wood.     This  is  all  that  oriental  planes  are  now,  simply  a 


i6 


Fig-.  101.     Section  of  Jack-Plane. 


sharpened  wedge  driven  into  a  block  of  wood.  When  the  hole  works 
too  loose,  the  Japanese  carpenter  inserts  a  piece  of  paper  to  tighten 
it,  or  he  makes  a  new  block.  The  first  improvement  was  the  addition 
of  a  wooden  wedge  to  hold  in  place  the  "plane-iron",  as  the  cutter 
was  formerly  called.  In  this  form,  the  cutter  or  plane-iron,  tho  still 


70  HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 

wedge-shaped,  was  reversed,  being  made  heavier  at  the  cutting  edge 
in  order  to  facilitate  fastening  it  in  the  wooden  plane-stock  by  means 
of  the  wooden  wedge.  Then  a  handle  was  added  for  convenience. 
Then  came  the  cap,  the  object  of  which  is  to  break  back  the  shaving 
and  thus  weaken  it  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is  cut.  Until  a  few 
years  ago,  this  was  all  that  there  was  in  a  plane,  and  such  planes  are 
still  common,  Fig.  100.  Finally  there  appeared  the  iron  plane,  Fig. 
101,  with  it  various  mechanical  adjustments.  The  following  are 
the  parts  of  the  Bailey  iron  plane  :4 

1.  Cutter,  or  bit,  or  blade,  or  plane-iron. 

2.  Cap,  or  plane-iron  cap,  or  curling  iron. 

3.  Cutter  screw,  or  plane-iron  screw. 

4.  Clamp,  or  lever  cap,  or  wedge. 

5.  Clamp  screw,  or  cap  screw. 

6.  Frog. 

7.  Y  Adjustment. 

8.  Brass  set  screw,  or  brass  adjusting  nut. 

9.  Lever    ( for  lateral  'adjustment ) . 

10.  Frog  screio. 

11.  Handle. 

12.  Knob. 

13.  Handle  bolt  and  nut. 

14.  Knob  screw,  or  Knob  bolt  and  nut. 

15.  Handle  screw. 

16.  Bottom,  or  sole. 

17.  Toe. 

18.  Heel. 

19.  Throat. 

20.  Thumb  piece,   or  clamp  lever,  or   cam. 

There  are  various  principles  involved  in  the  action  of  the  plane. 
The  effect  of  the  flat  sole  is  to  regulate  the  cut  of  the  cutter.  If  the 
surface  be  uneven,  the  cutter  will  not  cut  at  all,  or  but  little,  in  pass- 
ing over  low  places,  since  the  toe  and  heel  of  the  sole  will  then  be 
resting  on  higher  places;  but  when  the  cutter  reaches  a  high  place 
a  shaving  will  be  taken  off.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  longer  the 
plane,  the  straighter  will  be  the  surface  produced.  The  length  of  the 
plane  used  is  determined  by  the  length  of  the  wood  to  be  planed,  and 
the  degree  of  straightness  desired. 

4  The  numbers  and  names  in  italics  are  those  given  in  Stanley's  Catalog 
No.  34.  Some  of  these  names,  as  "plane-iron,"  are  survivals  from  the  days 
of  the  wooden  plane  and  are  obviously  unsuitable  now. 


WOOD   HAND  TOOLS. 


71 


The  part  of  the  sole  directly  in  front  of  the  cutter  presses  firmly 
down  on  the  wood  and  so  prevents  the  shaving  from  splitting  far  in 
advance  of  the  edge.  It  follows  that  the  narrowness  of  the  mouth 
in  a  plane  is  an  important  factor  in  the  production  of  smooth  sur- 
faces. This  can  be  regulated  by  adjusting  the  toe  in  the  block-plane, 
and  by  moving  the  frog  in  the  jack-  and  smooth-planes. 

A  recent  improvement  in  jack-,  smooth-,  and  fore-planes  consists 
of  an  adjustable  frog,  by  means  of  which  the  throat  can  be  narrowed 
or  widened  at  will  by  means  of  a  set-screw  in  the  rear  of  the  frog 
without  removing  the  clamp  and  cutter.  It  is  made  by  the  Stanley 
Rule  and  Level  Company  and  is  called  the  "Bed-Eock'"  plane. 

The  splitting  of  the  wood  in  advance  of  the  edge  is  also  prevented 
by  the  breaking  of  the  shaving  as  it  hits  against  the  cutter  or 
its  cap.  Hence  the  advantage  of  bending  up  and  breaking  or  partly 
breaking  the  shaving  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is  cut.  This  shows 
why  the  cap  is  set  close  to  the  edge  of  the  cutter.  Another  reason 
is  that  it  thereby  stiffens  the  cutter  and 
prevents  "chattering."  If  a  thick  shav- 
ing be  desired  the  cap  has  to  be  set  far- 
ther back.  In  a  smooth-plane  1/32  inch 
is  enough,  in  a  jack-plane  1/8  inch 
is  often  desirable.  The  following  are 
the  planes  in  common  use: 

The  jack-plane,  Fig.  102,  14"  to  15" 
long,  is  the  one  used  where  a  consider- 
able amount  of  material  is  to  be  taken 
off  to  bring  a  piece  of  wood  to  size,  and 
therefore  the  outline  of  the  cutting  edge 
instead  of  being  straight  is  slightly 
curved  or  "crowned"  so  that  in  planing 
the  surface  of  a  board  it  makes  a  series 
of  shallow  grooves,  the  ridges  of  which 
must  afterward  be  smoothed  off  by  an- 
other plane.  Also  for  beginners  whose 
hands  are  not  strong  it  is  sometimes  wise 
to  grind  the  cutter  with  some  "crown", 

in  order  to  take  off  narrow  shavings,  which  require  less  strength.   For 
school  use,  where  the  jack-plane  is  used  for  all  purposes,  the  cutter 


Fig-.  102.  Sighting-  Along-  the  Sole 
of  Jack-Plane 


72  HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 

is  "usually  ground  almost  straight  and  only  the  corners  rounded  as 
in  the  smooth-plane  and  the  fore-plane.5 

The  fore-plane,  22"  to  26"  long,  and  the  jointer,  28"  to  30"  long, 
are  large  planes,  similar  to  the  jack-plane,  except  that  the  cutting  edge 
is  straight.  They  are  used  for  straightening  and  smoothing  long  pieces. 

The  smooth-plane,  5^"  to  10"  long,  is  a  short  plane,  similar  to 
the  jack-plane,  except  that  the  cutting  edge  is  straight.  It  is  used 
for  smoothing. 

These  four  planes,  the  jack-plane,  the  fore-plane,  the  jointer,  and 
the  smooth-plane,  are  essentially  alike,  and  directions  for  the  use  of 
one  apply  to  all. 

There  are  two  chief  adjustments  in  the  Bailey  iron  plane:  the 
brass  set-screw,  see  8  in  Fig.  101,  which,  by  moving  the  adjustment 
up  or  down,  regulates  the  depth  of  the  cut,  and  the  lever,  9,  which 
moves  the  cutter  siclewise  so  that  it  may  be  made  to  cut  evenly.  The 
skilful  worker  keeps  constant  watch  of  these  adjustments.  It  is  well 
to  form  the  habit  of  always  sighting  along  the  sole  before  beginning 
to  plane,  in  order  to  see  that  the  cutter  projects  properly,  Fig.  102. 
It  is  a  common  mistake  among  beginnenrs  to  let  the  cutter  project 
too  far. 

It  is  important  to  know  what  is  the  best  order  of  procedure  in 
planing  up  a  board.  There  are  often  reasons  for  omitting  the  plan- 
ing up  of  one  or  more  surfaces,  but  it  is  wise  to  form  the  habit  of 
following  a  regular  order,  and  the  following  is  suggested  as  a  good  one : 

1.  Working  face.     Plane  one  broad  side  flat  and  smooth.     Finish 
with  the  plane  set  to  cut  fine  shavings.    Test  with  try-square.     Mark 
this  face  with  a  distinct  pencil  mark,  A,  Fig.  103. 

2.  Working  edge.     Plane  one  narrow   side  straight  and  square 
with  the  working  face.     Test  with  try-square,  pressing  the  block  of 
the  try-square  against  the  working  face.     Mark  the  working  edge 
with  two  distinct  pencil  marks,  B,  Fig.  103. 

3.  End.     First  mark  the  width  on  the  working  face  with  the 
marking-gage,   C,   1-2,   Fig.   103.     Chisel  off  the  corner,  a,   of  the 
piece  outside  this  gaged  line.     True  and  smooth  this  end  with  the 
plane,  making  it  square  with  both  working  face  and  working  edge, 
D,  2,  3,  4,  Fig.  103. 

4.  Length.     Measure  the  length  from  the  finished  end,  D,  2-3-4, 
score  across  the  working  face,  D,   5-6,  and  working  edge,  D,   6-7, 

5  In  whetting  a  plane-bit,  a  slight  crown  may  be  given  it  by  rubbing  a 
bit  harder  at  the  ends  of  the  edge  than  in  the  middle.  Strop  in  the  same 
way  as  a  chisel  (p.  59). 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


73 


using  a  sharp  knife  point  and  the  try-square.  Saw  just  outside  this 
line,  D,  5-6-7,  with  the  back-saw,  cut  off  the  narrow  corner,  D,  &, 
beyond  the  gaged  line  and  plane  true,  E,  Fig.  103. 


Fig-.  103.     The  Order  of  Planing  a  Board. 


5.  Width.     Plane  to  the  center  of  the  gaged  line,  E,  1-2.     Test 
this  edge  from  the  working  face,  F,  Fig.  103. 

6.  Thickness.      Mark   the   thickness   with   the   marking-gage   all 
around  the  piece,  F,  8-9-10.     Plane  to  the  center  of  the  gaged  line, 
G,  Fig.  103.    Test  this  face  for  flatness. 


74 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


In  a  word,  the  order  to  be  followed  is  graphically  represented  in 

H,  Fig.  103.     The  surfaces  are  numbered  consecutively  in  the  order 

in  which  they  are  to  be  planed. 

The  advantages  of  this  order  are  these:    by  planing  the  working 

face  first,  a  broad  surface  is  secured  to  which  the  others  may  be  made 

true.  By  planing  the  ends  before  the 
width  is  planed,  the  danger  of  splitting 
off  fragments  can  be  avoided  by  chisel- 
ing the  corner  of  the  unfinished  edges, 
C,  a,  and  D,  I,  Fig.  103,  into  a  buttress. 
By  planing  the  ends  and  the  width  be- 
fore the  thickness  is  planed,  a  dressed 
face  is  secured  all  around  for  gaging 
the  thickness.  In  following  this  order 
all  measurements  and  markings  are 
made  on  a  dressed  face. 

If  there  be  any  "wind"  or  twist  in 
the  board,  this  should  be  discovered  first 
of  all.  This  may  be  done  roughly  by  sight- 
ing across  the  broad  side  of  the  board, 
Fig.  104,  and  more  accurately  by  the  use 
of  "winding  sticks,"  see  Fig.  205,  p.  113. 
Or  the  surface  may  be  tested  with  the 
plane  itself  by  tilting  the  plane  on  its 
long  corner  edge,  and  resting  it  on  the 

board,  while  the  worker  looks  between  the  board  and  the  plane  toward 

the  light.     It  is  evident  that  the  plane  must  be  turned  in  various 

directions  to  test  for  wind,  and  that 

a  board  only  as  long  or  as  wide  as 

the  plane  is  long  can  be  tested  in 

this    way.      The    try-square    or    any 

straight  edge  may   be  used  for  the 

same  purpose,  Fig.  105.    If  there  be 

any  wind  in  the  board,  this  should 

at  once  be  taken  out  of  one  face  by 

planing  down  the  high  corners. 
In  starting  to  plane,  the  worker 

should  bear  down  on  the  knob  at  the  front  end  of  the  plane.     When 

the  plane  is  well  on  the  board,  he  should  bear  down  equally  on  both 


Fig.  104.     Sig-hting-  for  Wind. 


Fig-.  105.  Testing  from  Edge  : 
toEdg-e. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


75 


Fig-.  106.    Planing  an  Edge. 


knob  and  handle,  and  as  the  plane  begins  to  pass  off  the  board  he 
should  put  all  the  pressure  on  the  handle  end,  Fig.  106.  By  taking 

pains  thus,  a  convex  surface 
will  be  avoided,  the  making  of 
which  is  a  common  error  of  be- 
ginners. On  the  return  stroke, 
the  plane  should  be  lifted  or 
tilted  so  that  the  cutting  edge 
will  not  be  dulled  by  rubbing 
on  the  wood.  This  is  especially 
important  on  rough  and  dirty 

boards,  as  it  saves  the  cutting  edge,  and  in  fine  work,  as  it  saves  the 
work.  If  the  plane  tear  the  wood  instead  of  cutting  it  smooth,  as  it 
should,  it  is  because  the  planing  is  "against  the  grain".  This  can 
often  be  avoided  by  noticing  the  direction  of  the  grain  before  begin- 
ning to  plane.  But  even  if  it  be  not  noted  beforehand,  a  stroke  or 
two  will  show  the  roughness.  In  such  a  case,  it  is  necessary  simply 
to  turn  the  wood  around. 

The  accuracy  of  the  work  as  it  progresses  should  frequently  be 
tested,  and  the  eye  should  constantly  be  trained  so  that  it  can  more 
and  more  be  depended  upon  to  detect  inaccuracy,  Fig.  107.  As  each 
surface  is  trued,  it  should  be  carefully  smoothed  with  the  cutter  set 
to  cut  fine  shavings. 

In  planing  a  very  cross-grained  piece  of  wood,  there  are  several 
methods  to  use  for  securing  a  smooth 
surface.  The  frog  of  the  plane  should 
be  moved  forward  so  that  the  throat  in 
the  front  of  the  cutter  is  a  mere  slit. 
In  the  ordinary  plane  it  is  necessary  to 
remove  the  cutter  in  order  to  reset  the 
frog,  but  in  the  Sargent  plane  and  the 
Stanley  "bed  rock"  plane,  it  can  be  set 
by  a  set-screw  at  the  rear  of  the  frog. 
Next,  the  cap  should  be  set  so  that  the 
cutter  projects  but  very  little  beyond  it, 
or,  in  technical  language,  the  cutter 
should  be  set  "fine."  A  sliding  cut,  see 

p.  53,  should  be  taken  with  the  plane,  and  sometimes  it  may  be  nec- 
essary to  move  the  plane  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  general  direction 


Fig".  107.   Sighting- 
an  Edge. 


76  HANDWOKK    IN    WOOD. 

of  the  grain.  By  these  means  even  refractory  pieces  of  wood  can  be 
well  smoothed.  See  also  scrapers,  p.  91. 

The  choking  of  a  plane  is  the  stoppage  of  the  throat  by  shavings. 
It  may  be  due  simply  to  the  fact  that  the  cutter  is  dull  or  that  it 
projects  too  far  below  the  sole  of  the  plane.  In  a  wooden  plane  chok- 
ing is  sometimes  due  to  the  crowding  of  shavings  under  some  part  of 
the  wedge.  When  the  adjustable  frog  in  a  modern  plane  is  improperly 
placed  choking  may  result.  The  frog  should  be  far  enough  forward 
so  that  the  cutter  rests  squarely  upon  it. 

Choking  may,  and  most  commonly  does,  take  place  because  the 
cap  does  not  fit  down  tight  on  the  cutter.  This  happens  if  the  cap 
be  nicked  or  uneven.  In  consequence,  minute  shavings  are  driven 
between  these  two  irons  and  choking  soon  results.  The  remedy  is  to 
sharpen  the  cap,  so  that  its  edge  makes  a  close  fit  with  the  cutter. 
The  fit  may  be  made  still  tighter  by  rubbing  with  a  screwdriver  the 
edge  of  the  cap  down  on  the  cutter  after  it  is  screwed  in  place. 

In  no  tool  is  it  more  important  to  keep  the  cutter  sharp  than  in 
the  plane.  To  remove  the  cutter,  in  order  to  sharpen  it,  first  loosen 
the  clamp  lever  and  remove  the  clamp.  Carefully  remove  the  cap 
and  cutter  taking  pains  not  to  let  the  edge  hit  any  part  of  the  plane, 
then  using  the  clamp  as  a  screwdriver,  loosen  the  cap-screw  and  slide 
the  cap  back  along,  the  slot  in  the  cutter,  where  it  can  be  held  fast 
by  a  turn  of  the  cap-screw.  The  edge  is  now  free  and  can  readily  be 
whetted.  When  the  cap  needs  to  be  entirely  removed,  for  instance, 
for  grinding,  after  it  has  been  slid  along  the  cutter  slot,  as  before,  it 
is  turned  at  right  angles  to  the  cutter,  and  then  slid  down  the  slot 
until  the  cap-screw  unbuttons  from  the  cutter.  The  object  in  sliding 
the  cap  up  the  slot  before  turning  it,  is  to  prevent  the  danger  of  in- 
juring the  edge.  Some  caps  are  now  made  with  the  buttonhole  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  slot. 

After  sharpening,  (see  under  sharpening,  p.  117,)  the  order  is  re- 
versed for  replacing  the  cutter.  The  cap  is  set  at  right  angles  to  the 
cutter,  the  cap-screw  dropped  into  the  slot,  the  cap  is  slid  up  the 
slot,  and  turned  into  line  with  the  cutter,  and  then  slid  down  the  slot 
till  the  edge  of  the  cap  comes  quite  near  the  edge  of  the  cutter.  Then 
the  two  are  held  firmly  together  with  the  left  hand  until  the  cap 
screw  is  turned  tight. 

In  replacing  the  cutter  and  cap  in  the  plane,  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  injure  the  edge  and  to  see  that  the  Y  adjustment  lever  fits 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


77 


into  the  little  s'ot  in  the  cap;  then  finally  the  lever  is  thrown  down 
tight.  Then,  by  turning  the  plane  sole  upward  and  glancing  down 
it,  the  proper  adjustments  with  the  brass  set-screw  and  lateral  ad- 
justment lever  are  made.  When  the  plane  is  not  being  used,  it  should 
rest  either  on  a  pillow  (a  little  strip  of  wood  in  the  bench  trough), 
or  on  its  side.*  In  no  case  should  it  be  droppd  sole  down  flat  on 
the  bench. 

The  block- 
plane,  Fig.  108, 
gets  its  name 
from  the  fact 
that  it  was  first 
made  for  plan- 
ing off  the  ends 
of  clap-boards, 
a  process  called 
"blocking  in". 


Fig-.  10*.   Section  of  Block-Plane. 


The  names  of  the  parts  of  the  Bailey  block-plane  are8 : 

1.  Cutter  or  bit  or  plane-iron. 

2.  Clamp  or  lever  cap. 

3.  Cap-screw. 

4.  Adjusting  lever. 

5.  Adjusting  nut. 

6.  Lateral  adjustment. 

7.  Bottom. 

8.  Mouth  piece. 

9.  Eccentric  plate. 
10.  Knob. 

The  block-plane  was  devised  for  use  with  one  hand,  as  when  it  is 
used  by  carpenters  in  planing  pieces  not  readily  taken  to  a  vise  or  in 
planing  with  a  bench-hook.  Hence  it  is  made  small,  3l/2"  to  8"  long, 
the  clamp  is  rounded  so  as  to  act  as  a  handle,  and  the  cutter  is  low- 
ered to  an  ang'e  of  about  20°  to  make  the  plane  easy  to  grasp.  The 
lower  angle  of  the  cutter  makes  it  necessary  that  the  bevel  be  on  the 
upper  side.  Otherwise,  to  give  clearance,  the  bevel  would  have  to  be 
made  so  long  and  so  thin  as  to  be  weak.  By  putting  the  bevel  up, 
the  angle  between  the  wood  and  the  cutter  is  maintained  practicallv 

6  See  foot-note  p.  70. 
*S<?e  Fig.  206,  p.  113. 


78  HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 

as  in  the  smooth-plane.  Since  the  block-plane  is  intended  chiefly  for 
use  on  end  grain,  no  cap  is  needed  to  break  the  shavings.  The  ad- 
justable throat  makes  it  possible  to  cut  a  very  fine  shaving.  To  facili- 
tate the  cutting  action,  several  forms  of  block-planes  with  a  very  low 
angle  are  now  made. 

Where  both  hands  are  free  to  hold  the  plane,  the  block-plane  has 
no  advantage  over  a  smooth-plane,,  even  on  end  grain.  Moreover,  the 
cutter  cannot  be  held  so  firmly  in  place  as  that  of  a  smooth-plane,  so 
that  it  requires  constant  adjustment.  Hence  it  is  not  an  easy  tool 
for  amateurs  to  handle.  There  is  considerable  lost  motion  in  the 
adjusting  nut,  and  the  set-screw,  which  acts  as  a  knob,  is  likely  to 
work  loose  and  be  lost.  It  is  hardly  to  be  recommended  as  a  part  of 
the  equipment  of  the  individual  bench  in  school  shops. 

The  piece  to  be  planed  with  the  block-plane  may  be  held  either 
in  the  vise,  end  up,  or  on  a  bench-hook,  Fig.  109.  In  end  planing 

in  the  vise,  in  order  to  avoid 
splintering  the  precaution  should 
be  taken  to  trim  off  a  corner  on 
the  undressed  edge,  as  directed 
on  page  73,  or  else  the  planing 
must  be  done  from  both  edges 
toward  the  center.  The  sliding 
cut  is  much  easier  than  the 

Fig.  109.     Using  the  Block-Plane  .    ,   .  ,    ,  ., 

and  Bench-Hook.  straight  cut,  and  hence  there  is 

a  constant  temptation  to  turn 
the  plane  at  an  angle  perhaps  at  an  expense  of  the  flat  surface  desired. 

In  using  the  bench-hook  the  piece  to  be  block-planed  is  placed 
with  the  working  edge  against  the  block,  with  the  end  to  be  planed 
to  the  right  and  flush  with  the  edge  of  the  bench-hook,  in  which  posi- 
tion it  is  held  with  the  left  hand.  The  block-plane,  held  in  the  right 
hand,  is  placed  on  its  side  on  the  bench  facing  toward  the  work.  In 
planing,  the  left  hand  holds  the  work  firmly  against  the  block  of  the 
bench-hook,  pressing  it  somewhat  to  the  right  against  the  plane.  The 
right  hand  holds  the  side  of  the  plane  flat  on  the  bench  and  presses  it 
to  the  left  against  the  bench-hook  and  work.  Held  in  this  position 
the  plane  is  pushed  forward  and  back  until  the  end  is  smoothed. 
Considerable  practice  is  necessary  to  handle  the  block-plane  well. 

The  scrub-plane  is  a  short  plane  in  which  the  crown  of  the  cutter, 
Fig.  110,  is  quite  curved.  It  is  used  to  reduce  surfaces  rapidly. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


79 


The  scratch-plane,  Fig.  Ill,  has  a  toothed  cutter  which  scratches 
fine  lines  along  its  course.  It  is  used  to  roughen  surfaces  of  hard 
wood  which  are  to  be  glued  together,  for  otherwise  the  glue  would 
not  adhere  well.  Some  tropical  woods  are  so  hard  that  their  surfaces 


Fig-.  110.     Scrub-Plane. 


Fig,  111.    Scratch-Plane  and  Scraper-Plane. 


can  be  reduced  only  by  a  scratch-plane.  It  is  also  useful  in  preparing 
the  surface  of  a  very  cross-grained  piece  of  wood  which  cannot  be 
planed  without  chipping.  By  first  scratching  it  carefully  in  all  di- 
rections, it  can  then  be  scraped  smooth.  It  is  also  called  a  scraper- 
plane,  because  accompanying  the  plane  is  a  scraper  which  can  be  in- 
serted in  the  same  stock  and  inclined  at  any  required  angle.  This 
plane-stock  prevents  the  scraper  from  unduly  lowering  some  portions 
of  the  surface.  See  also  veneer-scraper,  p.  91. 

The  rabbeting-  or  rebating-plane,  Fig.  112,  is  designed  for  use  in 
cutting:  out  a  rectangular  recess,  such  as  the  rabbet  on  the  back  of 


Fig.  112.    Rabbet-Plane. 


Fig.  113.    Molding- Plane. 


the  picture-frames.    In  line  with  the  right  hand  corner  of  the  cutter 
is  a  removable  spur  to  score  the  wood  so  that  the  shaving  which  fol- 


80 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


lows  may  be  cut  out  clean  and  not  torn  out.     With  the  addition  of  a 
guiding  fence  it  is  called  a  filletster.     This  may  be  used  on  either 
the  right  or  left  side.     In  the  form  shown  in 
Fig.  112,  there  is  also  a  depth  gage. 

In  using  this  plane  see  that  the  corner  of 
the  cutter  is  in  line  with  the  sole,  and  that 
both  it  and  the  spur  are  sharp.  Set  the  fence 
and  the  stop  at  the  desired  width  and  depth  of 
the  rabbet.  At  the  first  stroke  the  spur  will 
score  the  width.  This  and  every  stroke  should 
be  taken  as  evenly  and  carefully  as  if  it  were 
the  only  one.  In  the  effort  to  keep  the  fence 

pressed  close  to  the  side  of  the  wood,  the  tendency  is  to  tilt  the  plane 
over.     This  causes  the  very  opposite  effect  from  that  desired,  for  the 

spur  runs  off  diagonally,  as 


Fig-.  114.     Result  of 

Careless   Use   of 

Rabbet-Plane. 


Fig-.  115.     Tong-uing--and-Grooving--Plane. 


in  Fig.  114. 

If  this  happens  stop 
planing  at  once,  clean  out 
the  recess  properly  with  a 
chisel  and  then  proceed. 

The  dado- plane  is  much 
like  the  rabbeting-plane,  ex- 
cept that  it  is  provided  with 
two  spurs,  one  at  each  side 
of  the  cutting  edge,  to  score 
the  wood  before  cutting. 
The  molding-plane,  Fig.  113,  as  it  name  indicates,  is  for  making 
moldings  of  various  forms;    as,  quarter-round,  half-round,  ogee,  etc. 

The  tonguing-and-grooving- 
plane,  Fig.  115,  is  for  matching 
boards,  i.  e.,  making  a  tongue 
in  one  to  fit  into  a  groove  in  an- 
other. See  Fig.  269,  No.  72,  p. 
182. 

The  circular-plane,  Fig.  116, 
has  a  flexible  steel  face  which 
can  be  adjusted  to  any  required 
arc,  convex  or  concave,  so  that 
curved  surfaces  may  be  planed. 


Fig-.  116.    Circular-Plane. 


WOOD    HAND   TOOLS. 


81 


The  universal  plane,  Fig.  117,  is  a  combination  of  various  mold- 
ing-, rabbeting-,  matching-  and  other  planes.  It  is  capable  of  many 
adjustments  and  applications.  The  principal  parts  of  this  plane  are: 
a  main  stock,  A,  with  two  sets  of  transverse  sliding  arms,  a  depth- 
gage,  F,  adjusted  by  a  screw,  and  a  slitting  cutter  with  stop,  a  sliding 
section,  B,  with  a  vertically  adjustable  bottom,  the  auxiliary  center 
bottom,  C,  to  be  placed  when  needed  in  front  of  the  cutter  as  an  extra 


Fig-.  117.    Universal  Plane. 


support  or  stop.  This  bottom  is  adjustable  both  vertically  and  lat- 
erally. Fences,  D  and  E.  For  fine  work,  fence  D  has  a  lateral  ad- 
justment by  means  of  a  thumb-screw.  The  fences  can  be  used  on 
either  side  of  the  plane,  and  the  rosewood  guides  can  be  tilted  to  any 
desired  angle,  up  to  45°,  by  loosening  the  screws  on  the  face.  Fence 
E  can  be  reversed  for  center-beading  wide  boards.  For  work  thinner 
than  the  depth  of  the  fence,  the  work  may  overhang  the  edge  of  the 
bench  and  fence  E  be  removed.  An  adjustable  stop,  to  be  used  in 
beading  the  edges  of  matched  boards,  is  inserted  on  the  left  side  of 
the  sliding  section  B.  A  great  variety  of  cutters  are  supplied,  such 
as :  molding,  matching,  sash,  beading,  reeding,  fluting,  hollow, 
round,  plow,  rabbet,  and  filletster.  Special  shapes  can  be  obtained 
by  order. 

The  Use  of  the  Universal  Plane.  Insert  the  proper  cutter,  adjust- 
ing it  so  that  the  portion  of  it  in  line  with  the  main  stock,  A,  will 
project  below  the  sole  the  proper  distance  for  cutting. 


82 


HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 


Fig.  118.   Iron  Spokeshave.      Fig.  119.  Pattern-maker's 

Spokeshave. 


Adjust  the  bottom  of  the  sliding  section,  B,  so  that  the  lowest 
portion  of  the  cutter  will  project  the  proper  distance  below  it  for  cut- 
ting. Tighten  the  check  nuts  on  the  transverse  arms  and  then 
tighten  the  thumb-screws  which  secure  the  sliding  section  to  the  arms. 
The  sliding  section  is  not  always  necessary,  as  in  a  narrow  rabbet 
or  bead. 

When  an  additional  support  is  needed  for  the  cutter,  the  auxiliary 

center  bottom,  C,  may 
be  adjusted  in  front 
of  it.  This  may  also 
be  used  as  a  stop. 

Adjust  one  or  both 
of  the  fences,  D  and 

E,  and  fasten  with  the  thumb-screws.     Adjust  the  depth-gage,  F,  at 
the  proper  depth. 

For  a  dado  remove  the  fences  and  set  the  spurs  parallel  with  the 
edges  of  the  cutter.  Insert  the  long  adjustable  stop  on  the  left  hand 
of  the  sliding  section.  For  slitting,  insert  the  cutter  and  stop  on  the 
right  side  of  the  main  stock  and  use  either  fence  for  a  guide. 

For  a  chamfer,  insert  the  desired  cutter,  and  tilt  the  rosewood 
guides  on  the  fences  to  the  required  angle.  For  chamfer  beading  use 
in  the  same  manner,  and  gradually  feed  the  cutter  down  by  means 
of  the  adjusting  thumb-nut. 

There  are  also  a  number  of 
planelike  tools  such  as  the  follow- 
ing: 

The  spokeshave,  Fig.  118. 
works  on  the  same  principle  as  a 
plane,  except  that  the  guiding  sur- 
face is  very  short.  This  adapts  it 
to  work  with  curved  outlines.  It 
is  a  sort  of  regulated  draw-shave. 
It  is  sometimes  made  of  iron  with 
an  adjustable  mouth,  which  is  a 
convenient  form  for  beginners  to 
use,  and  is  easy  to  sharpen.  The 
pattern-maker's  spokeshave,  Fig. 

119,  which  has  a  wooden  frame,  is  better  suited  to  more  careful  work. 
The  method  of  using  the  spokeshave  is  shown  in  Fig.  120.  (See  p.  100.') 


Fig-.  120.  Using-  a  Spokeshave. 


WOOD   HAND  TOOLS. 


83 


Fig.  121.    Router-Plane. 


The  router-plane,  Figs.  121  and  122,  is  used  to  lower  a  certain 
part  of  a  surface  and  yet  keep  it  parallel  with  the  surrounding  part, 

and  it  is  particularly  useful  in  cutting 
panels,  dadoes,  and  grooves.  The  cut- 
ter has  to  be  adjusted  for  each  success- 
ive cut.  Where  there  are  a  number  of 
dadoes  to  be  cut  of  the  same  depth,  it 
is  wise  not  to  finish  them  one  at  a 
time,  but  to  carry  on  the  cutting  of  all 
together,  lowering  the  cutter  after  each 
round.  In  this  way  all  the  dadoes  will 
be  finished  at  exactly  the  same  depth. 

The  dowel-pointer,  Fig.  123,  is  a  convenient  tool  for  removing  the 
sharp  edges  from  the  ends  of  dowel  pins.    It  is  held  in  a  brace.    The 
cutter     is     adjustable 
and  is  removable  for 
sharpening. 

The  cornering  tool, 
Fig.  124,  is  a  simple 
device  for  rounding 
sharp  corners.  A  cut- 
ter at  each  end  cuts 
both  ways  so  that  it 
can  be  used  with  the 
grain  without  chang- 
ing the  position  of  the  work.  The  depth  of  the  cut  is  fixed. 


Fig.  122.    Using  a  Router- Plane. r"— ~ 


2.    BORING  TOOLS. 

Some  boring  tools,  like  awls,  force  the  material  apart,  and  some, 

like  augers,  remove  material. 

The  brad-awl,  Fig.  125,  is  wedge-shaped,  and  hence  care  needs  to 

be  taken  in  using  it  to  keep  the  edge 
across  the  grain  so  as  to  avoid  splitting 
the  wood,  especially  thin  wood.  The 
size  is  indicated  by  the  length  of  the 
blade  when  new, — a  stupid  method.  The 
awl  is  useful  for  making  small  holes  in 

soft  wood,  and  it  can  readily  be  sharpened  by  grinding. 


Fig.  123 
Dowel- 
Pointer. 


Fig.  124 
Cornering  Tool. 


84 


HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 


125 
Fig-.  125.  Brad-Awl. 


128 


129 


130 


126  127 

Fig-.  126.  Twist-Drill.     Fig-.  127.  Twist-Bit.    Fig.  128.  German  Gimlet- 
Bit.     Fig-.  129.    Bit-Point  Drill.     Fig-  130.     Auger-Bit. 


131  132  133  134  135  136 

Fig.  131.  Plug-Cutter.    Fig.  132.    Center-Bit.    Fig.  133.  Foerstner  Auger-Bit.    Fig.  134. 

Expansive-Bit.     Fig.  135.  Reamer.    Fig.  136.    Rose  Countersink. 


WOOD   HAND  TOOLS.  85 

Gimlets  and  drills  are  alike  in  that  they  cut  away  material,  but 
unlike  in  that  the  cutting  edge  of  the  gimlet  is  on  the  side,  while 
the  cutting  edge  of  the  drill  is  on  the  end. 

Twist-drills,  Fig.  126,  are  very  hard  and  may  be  used  in  drilling 
metal.  They  are  therefore  useful  where  there  is  danger  of  meeting 
nails,  as  in  repair  work.  Their  sizes  are  indicated  by  a  special  drill 
gage,  Fig.  220,  p.  117. 

Twist-bits,  Fig.  127,  are  like  twist-drills  except  that  they  are  not 
hard  enough  to  use  for  metal.  Their  sizes  are  indicated  on  the  tang 
in  32nds  of  an  inch.  Both  twist-bits  and  drill-bits  have  the  advan- 
tage over  gimlet-bits  in  that  they  are  less  likely  to  split  the  wood. 

Twist-bits  and  twist-drills  are  sharpened  on  a  grindstone,  care 
being  taken  to  preserve  the  original  angle  of  the  cutting  edge  so  that 
the  edge  will  meet  the  wood  and  there  will  be  clearance. 

German  gimlet-bits,  Fig.  128,  have  the  advantage  of  centering 
well.  The  size  is  indicated  on  the  tang  in  32nds  of  an  inch.  They 
are  useful  in  boring  holes  for  short  blunt  screws  as  well  as  deep  holes. 
They  cannot  be  sharpened  readily  but  are  cheap  and  easily  replaced. 

Bit-point  drills,  Fig.  129,  are  useful  for  accurate  work,  but  are 
expensive. 

Auger-bits,  Fig.  130,  have  several  important  features.  The  spur 
centers  the  bit  in  its  motion,  and  since  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  pointed 
screw  draws  the  auger  into  the  wood.  Two  sharp  nibs  on  either  side 
score  the  circle,  out  of  which  the  lips  cut  the  shavings,  which  are 
then  carried  out  of  the  hole  by  the  main  screw  of  the  tool.  The  size 
of  auger-bits  is  indicated  by  a  figure  on  the  tang  in  16ths  of  an  inch. 
Thus  9  means  a  diameter  of  9/16". 

There  are  three  chief  precautions  to  be  taken  in  using  auger-bits. 
(1)  One  is  to  bore  perpendicularly  to  the  surface.  A  good  way  to 
do  this  is  to  lay  the  work  flat,  either  on  the  bench  or  in  the  vise,  and 
sight  first  from  the  front  and  then  from  the  side  of  the  work,  to  see 
that  the  bit  is  perpendicular  both  ways.  The  test  may  also  be  made 
with  the  try-square,  Fig.  137,  or  with  a  plumb-line,  either  by  the 
worker,  or  in  difficult  pieces,  by  a  fellow  worker.  The  sense  of  per- 
pendicularity, however,  should  constantly  be  cultivated.  (2)  Another 
precaution  is  that,  in  thru  boring,  the  holes  should  not  be  bored  quite 
thru  from  one  side,  lest  the  wood  be  splintered  off  on  the  back.  When 
the  spur  pricks  thru,  the  bit  should  be  removed,  the  piece  turned  over, 
and  the  boring  finished,  putting  the  spur  in  the  hole  which  is  pricked 


86 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


thru  in  boring  from  the  first  side.  It  is  seldom  necessary  to  press 
against  the  knob  of  the  brace  in  boring,  as  the  thread  on  the  spur 
will  pull  the  bit  thru,  especially  in  soft  wood.  Indeed,  as  the  bit 
reaches  nearly  thru  the  board,  if  the  knob  is  gently  pulled  back,  then 

when  the  spur  pricks  thru  the  bit  will 
be  pulled  out  of  its  hole.  This  avoids 
the  necessity  of  constantly  watching  the 
back  of  the  board  to  see  if  the  spur  is 
thru.  (3)  In  stop  boring,  as  in  boring 
for  dowels  or  in  making  a  blind  mortise, 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  bore  thru 
the  piece.  For  this  purpose  an  auger- 
bit-gage,  Fig.  219,  p.  116,  may  be  used, 
or  a  block  of  wood  of  the  proper  length 
thru  which  a  hole  has  been  bored,  may 
be  slipped  over  the  bit,  or  the  length  of 
bit  may  be  noted  before  boring,  and 
then  the  length  of  the  projecting  por- 
tion deducted,  or  the  number  of  turns 
needed  to  reach  the  required  depth  may 
be  counted  on  a  trial  piece.  Tying  a 
string  around  a  bit,  or  making  a  chalk 
mark  on  it  is  folly. 

Auger-bits  are  sharpened  with  an  auger-bit  file,  Fig.  142,  p.  90, 
a  small  flat  file  with  two  narrow  safe  edges  at  one  end  and  two  wide 
safe  edges  at  the  other.  The  "nibs"  should  be  filed  on  the  inside  so 
of  the  bit.  The  cutting  lip  should  be  sharpened  from  the  upper  side, 
that  is,  the  side  toward  the  shank.  If  sharpened  from  the  side  to- 
ward the  spur,  the  necessary  clearance  is  likely  to  be  lost. 

The  plug-cutter,  Fig.  131,  is  useful  for  cutting  plugs  with  which 
to  cover  the  heads  of  screws  that  are  deeply  countersunk. 

Center-bits,  Fig.  132,  work  on  the  same  principle  as  auger-bits, 
except  that  the  spurs  have  no  screw,  and  hence  have  to  be  pushed 
forcibly  into  the  wood.  Sizes  are  given  in  16ths  of  an  inch.-  They 
are  useful  for  soft  wood,  and  in  boring  large  holes  in  thin  material 
which  is  likely  to  split.  They  are  sharpened  in  the  same  way  as 
auger-bits. 


Fig.  137.     Using  a  Try-Square  as 
a  Guide  in  Boring. 


WOOD   HAND  TOOLS.  87 

Foerstner  bits,  Fig.  133,  are  peculiar  in  having  no  spur,  but  are 
centered  by  a  sharp  edge  around  the  circumference.  The  size  is  indi- 
cated on  the  tang,  in  16ths  of  an  inch.  They  are  useful  in  boring 
into  end  grain,  and  in  boring  part  way  into  wood  so  thin  that  a  spur 
would  pierce  thru.  They  can  be  sharpened  only  with  special  appli- 
ances. 

Expansive-bits,  Fig.  134,  are  so  made  as  to  bore  holes  of  different 
sizes  by  adjusting  the  movable  nib  and  cutter.  There  are  two  sizes, 
the  small  one  with  two  cutters,  boring  from  %"  to  1^"  and  the 
large  one  with  three  cutters  boring  from  ^"  to  4".  They  are  very 
useful  on  particular  occasions, 
but  have  to  be  used  with  care. 

Reamers,  Fig.  135,  are  used 
for  enlarging  holes  already 
made.  They  are  made  square, 
half-round  and  six  cornered  in 
shape. 


Countersinks,  Fig.   136,  are  Fig.  iss.   Washer-cutter, 

reamers  in  the  shape  of  a  flat 

cone,  and  are  used  to  make  holes  for  the  heads  of  screws.    The  rose 
countersink  is  the  most  satisfactory  form. 

The  washer-cutter,  Fig.  138,  is  useful  not  only  for  cutting  out 
washers  but  also  for  cutting  holes  in  thin  wood.  The  size  is  ad- 
justable. 

3.    CHOPPING   TOOLS. 

The  primitive  celt,  which  was  hardly  more  than  a  wedge,  has  been 
differentiated  into  three  modern  hand  tools,  the  chisel,  see  above,  p. 
53,  the  ax,  Fig.  139,  and  the  adze,  Fig.  141. 

The  ax  has  also  been  differentiated  into  the  hatchet,  with  a  short 
handle,  for  use  with  one  hand,  while  the  ax-handle  is  long,  for  use 
with  two  hands.  Its  shape  is  an  adaption  to  its  manner  of  use.  It 
is  oval  in  order  to  be  strongest  in  the  direction  of  the  blow  and  also 
in  order  that  the  axman  may  feel  and  guide  the  direction  of  the 
blade.  The  curve  at  the  end  is  to  avoid  the  awkward  raising  of  the 
]eft  hand  at  the  moment  of  striking  the  blow,  and  the  knob  keeps  it 
from  slipping  thru  the  hand.  In  both  ax  and  hatchet  there  is  a  two- 
beveled  edge.  This  is  for  the  sake  of  facility  in  cutting  into  the  wood 
at  any  angle. 


88 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


There  are  two  principal  forms,  the  common  ax  and  the  two  bitted 
ax,  the  latter  used  chiefly  in  lumbering,  Fig.  4,  p.  10.  There  is  also 
a  wedge-shaped  ax  for  splitting  wood.  As  among  all  tools,  there  is 
among  axes  a  great  variety  for  special  uses. 


Fig-.  140.     Shing-liiig-  Hatchet. 


f.  139.     Ax. 


Fig.  141.  Car- 
penter's Adze. 


The  hatchet  has,  beside  the  cutting  edge,  a  head  for  driving  nails, 
and  a  notch  for  drawing  them,  thus  combining  three  tools  in  one. 
The  shingling  hatchet,  Fig.  140,  is  a  type  of  this. 

The  adze,  the  carpenter's  house  adze,  Fig.  141,  is  flat  on  the  lower 
side,  since  its  use  is  for  straightening  surfaces. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


89 


WOOD    HAND    TOOLS. 


REFERENCES : * 

(1)   Cutting. 
Goss,  p.  22. 

Chisel. 

Barnard,  pp.  59-73. 
Selden,   pp.  44-50,    145-147. 
Barter,  pp.   93-96. 
Griffith,  pp.  53-64. 

Knife. 

Barnard,   pp.  48-58. 

Saw. 

Griffith,  pp.  20-27. 
Barnard,  pp.   114-124. 
Selden,   pp.   41-43,    179-182. 
Wheeler,  pp.  466-473. 
Hammacher,  pp.  309-366. 

Plane. 

Barnard,   pp.   74-80. 
Selden,   pp.    11-26,    165-175. 
Sickels  pp.  72-75,  116. 
Wheeler,  pp.  445-458. 
Hammacher,  pp.   377-400. 

f2)   Boring  Tools. 

Barnard,  pp.    125-135. 

Goss,  pp.   53-59. 

Griffith,  pp.  47-52. 
(3)    Chopping  Tools. 

Barnard,  pp.  80-88. 


Smith,  R.   H.,  pp.   1-8. 

Goss,  pp.  20-26. 
Sickels,  pp.  64-67. 
Wheeler,  357,  421,  442. 


Selden,  pp.  26-28,  158. 

Goss,  pp.  26-41. 
Sickels,  pp.  76-79,  84. 
Smith,  R.  H.,  43-55. 
Disston,  pp.  129-138. 

Smith,  R.  H.,  pp.  16-31. 
Larsson,  p.  19. 
Goss,  pp.  41-52. 
Barter,  pp.  96-109. 
Griffith,  pp.  28-45. 

Selden,  pp.  38-40,   141-144. 
Wheeler,  pp.   353-356. 


*For  general  bibliography  see  T>.  4. 


CHAPTER  IV,  CONTINUED. 
WOOD  HAND  TOOLS. 

4.    SCRAPING    TOOLS. 

Scraping  tools  are  of  such  nature  that  they  can  only  abrade  or 
smooth  surfaces. 

Files,  Figs.  142-146,  are  formed  with  a  series  of  cutting  edges  or 
teeth.  These  teeth  are  cut  when  the  metal  is  soft  and  cold  and  then  the 


142 


143 


144 


145 


146 


147 


148 


Fig.  142.     Auger-Bit-File. 

Fig-.  144.    Three-Square  Single-Cut  File. 

Fig.  146.    Double-Cut  File. 

Fig.  ]48. 


Fig.  143.     Single-Cut  Blunt,  Flat,  Bastard  File. 
Fig.  145.     Open  Cut,  Taper,  Half-Round  File. 
Fig.  147.     Cabinet  Wood-Rasp. 
File-Card. 


tool  is  hardened.  There  are  in  use  at  least  three  thousand  varieties  of 
files,  each  of  which  is  adapted  to  its  particular  purpose.  Lengths  are 
measured  from  point  to  heel  exclusive  of  the  tang.  They  are  classified : 
(1)  according  to  their  outlines  into  blunt,  (i.  e.,  having  a  uniform 
cross-section  thruout),  and  taper;  (2)  according  to  the  shape  of  their 


90 


WOOD   HAND  TOOLS.  91 

cross-section,  into  flat,  square,  three-square  or  triangular,  knife,  round 
or  rat-tail,  half-round,  etc.;  (3)  according  to  the  manner  of  their 
serrations,  into  single  cut  or  "float"  (having  single,  unbroken,  paral- 
lel, chisel  cuts  across  the  surface),  double-cut,  (having  two  sets  of 
chisel  cuts  crossing  each  other  obliquely,)  open  cut,  (having  series  of 

parallel  cuts,  slightly  staggered,)  and 
safe  edge,  (or  side,)  having  one  or  more 
uncut  surfaces;  and  (4)  according  to 
the  fineness  of  the  cut,  as  rough,  bas- 


149.  tard,    second    cut,    smooth,    and    dead 


mon   form,   is    a   flat,   tapered,   single- 
cut  file. 

Rasps,  Fig.  147,  differ  from  files  in  that  instead  of  having  cutting 
teeth  made  by  lines,  coarse  projections  are  made  by  making  indenta- 
tions with  a  triangular  point  when  the  iron  is  soft.  The  difference 
between  files  and  rasps  is  clearly  shown  in  Fig.  149. 

It  is  a  good  rule  that  files  and  rasps  are  to  be  used  on  wood  only 
as  a  last  resort,  when  no  cutting  tool  will  serve.  Great  care  must  be 
taken  to  file  flat,  not  letting  the  tool  rock.  It  is  better  to  file  only  on 
the  forward  stroke,  for  that  is  the  way  the  teeth  are  made  to  cut,  and 
a  flatter  surface  is  more  likely  to  be  obtained. 

Both  files  and  rasps  can  be  cleaned  with  a 
file-card,  Fig.  148.  They  are  sometimes  sharp- 
ened with  a  sandblast,  but  ordinarily  when  dull 
are  discarded. 

Scrapers  are  thin,  flat  pieces  of  steel.  They 
may  be  rectangular,  or  some  of  the  edges  may 
be  curved.  For  scraping  hollow  surfaces  curved  Fig.  iso. 

scrapers  of  various  shapes  are  necessary.     Con-          Molding-Scrapers, 
venient  shapes  are  shown  in  Fig.  150.    The  cut- 
ting power  of  scrapers  depends  upon  the  delicate  burr  or  feather  along 
their  edges.    When  properly  sharpened  they  take  off  not  dust  but  fine 
shavings.    Scrapers  are  particularly  useful  in  smoothing  cross-grained 
pieces  of  wood,  and  in  cleaning  off  glue,  old  varnish,  etc. 

There  are  various  devices  for  holding  scrapers  in  frames  or  han- 
dles, such  as  the  scraper-plane,  Fig.  Ill,  p.  79,  the  veneer-scraper, 
and  box-scrapers.  The  veneer-scraper,  Fig.  151,  has  the  advantage 
that  the  blade  may  be  sprung  to  a  slight  curve  by  a  thumb-screw  in 


92 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


Fig.  151.     Using-  a  Veneer- 
Scraper. 


the  middle  of  the  back,  just  as  an  ordinary  scraper  is  when  held  in 

the  hands. 

In  use,  Fig.   152,  the  scraper  may  be  either  pushed  or  pulled. 

When  pushed,  the  scraper  is  held  firmly  in  both  hands,  the  fingers 

on  the  forward  and  the  thumbs 
on  the  back  side.  It  is  tilted 
forward,  away  from  the  opera- 
tor, far  enough  so  that  it  will 
not  chatter  and  is  bowed  back 
slightly,  by  pressure  of  the 
thumbs,  so  that  there  is  no 
risk  of  the  corners  digging  in. 
When  pulled  the  position  is 
reversed. 

One  method  of  sharpening 

the  scraper  is  as  follows :    the  scraper  is  first  brought  to  the  desired 

shape,  straight  or  curved.     This  may  be  done  either  by  grinding  on 

the  grindstone  or  by  filing  with  a  smooth,  flat  file,  the  scraper,  while 

held  in  a  vise.    The  edge  is  then  carefully  draw-filed,  i.  e.,  the  file,  a 

smooth  one,  is  held  (one  hand  at  each  end)   directly  at  right  angles 

to  the  edge  of  the  scraper,  Fig.  153,  and  moved  sidewise  from  end  to 

end  of  the  scraper,  until  the  edge  is  quite  square  with  the  sides. 

Then  the  scraper  is  laid  flat  on  the  oilstone  and  rubbed,  first  on  one 

side  and  then  on  the  other,  till  the  sides  are  bright  and  smooth  along 

the  edge,  Fig.  154.   Then  it  is 

set  on  edge  on  the  stone  and 

rubbed  till  there  are  two  sharp 

square    corners    all    along    the 

edge,  Fig.  155.  Then  it  is  put 

in  the  vise  again  and  by  means 

of     a    burnisher,     or     scraper 

steel,  both  of  these  corners  are 

carefully  turned  or  bent  over 

so  as  to  form  a  fine  burr.  This 

is  done  by  tipping  the  scraper 

steel  at  a  slight  angle  with  the  edge  and  rubbing  it  firmly  along  the 

sharp  corner,  Fig.  156. 

To  resharpen  the  scraper  it  is  not  necessary  to  file  it  afresh  evcrv 

time,  but  on]y  to  flatten  out  the  edges  and  turn  them  again  willi 


Fig-.  152.     Using-  a  Cabinet- 
Scraper. 


WOOD   HAXD   TOOLS. 


93 


Fig.  153.    Sharpening-  a  Cabinet-Scraper: 
1st  Step,  Drawfiling. 


slightly  more  bevel.    Instead  of  using  the  oilstone  an  easier,  tho  less 
perfect,  way  to  flatten  out  the  burr  on  the  edges  is  to  lay  the  scraper 
flat  on  the  bench  near  the  edge.    The  scraper  steel  is  then  passed  rap- 
idly to  and  fro  on  the  flat  side 
of  the  scraper,  Fig.  157.     Af- 
ter  that   the   edge   should   be 
turned  as  before. 

Sandpaper.  The  "sand"  is 
crushed  quartz  and  is  very  hard 
and  sharp.  Other  materials 
on  paper  or  cloth  are  also  used, 
as  jasper,  carborundum,  emery, 
and  so  on.  Sandpaper  comes 
in  various  grades  of  coarse- 
ness from  No.  00  (the  finest) 

to  No.  3,  indicated  on  the  back  of  each  sheet.    For  ordinary  purposes 
No.  00  and  No.  1  are  sufficient.     Sandpaper  sheets  may  readily  be 
torn  by  placing  the  sanded  side  down,  one-half  of  the  sheet  project- 
ing over  the  square  edge  of  the  bench.    With  a  quick  downward  mo- 
tion    the     projecting     portion 
easily  parts.     Or  it  may  be  torn 
straight  by  laying  the  sandpa- 
per on  a  bench,  sand  side  down, 
holding   the   teeth    of    a   back- 
saw  along  the  line  to  be  torn. 
In  this  case,  the  smooth  surface 
of  the  sandpaper  would  be  against  the  saw. 

Sandpaper  should  never  be  used  to  scrape  and  scrub  work  into 
shape,  but  only  to  obtain  an  extra  smoothness.    Nor  ordinarily  should 
it  be  used  on  a  piece  of  wood  until  all  the  work  with  cutting  tools 
is   done,   for  the  fine  particles 
of  sand  remaining  in  the  wood 
dull    the    edge    of    the    tool. 
Sometimes  in  a  piece  of  cross- 
grained  wood  rough  places  will 
be  discovered  by  sandpapering. 
The    surface    should    then    be 
wiped  free  of  sand  and  scraped          pijr  15_    Sbarpenin?  a  cabinet-scraper: 

before      Using      a      Cutting      tool  3rd  SteP<  Removing  the  Wire-Edge. 


Fig.  154.     Sharpening  a  Cabinet-Scraper: 
2nd  Step,  Whetting. 


94 


HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 


Fig-.  156.    Sharpening  a  Cabinet-Scraper: 
4th  Step,  Turning-  the  Edge. 


again.  In  order  to  avoid  cross  scratches,  work  should  be  "sanded" 
with  the  grain,  even  if  this  takes  much  trouble.  For  flat  surfaces, 
and  to  touch  off  edges,  it  is  best  to  wrap  the  sandpaper  over  a  rec- 
tangular block  of  wood,  of  which  the  corners  are  slightly  rounded,  or 

it  may  be  fitted  over  special 
shapes  of  wood  for  specially 
shaped  surfaces.  The  objec- 
tion to  using  the  thumb  or 
fingers  instead  of  a  block,  is 
that  the  soft  portions  of  the 
wood  are  cut  down  faster  than 
the  hard  portions,  whereas  the 
use  of  a  block  tends  to  keep  the 
surface  even. 

Steel  wool  is  made  by  turn- 
ing off  fine  shavings  from  the 
edges  of  a  number  of  thin  discs 
of  steel,  held  together  in  a 

lathe.  There  are  various  grades  of  coarseness,  from  No.  00  to  No.  3. 
Its  uses  are  manifold:  as  a  substitute  for  sandpaper,  especially  on 
curved  surfaces,  to  clean  up  paint,  and  to  rub  down  shellac  to  an 
"egg-shell"  finish.  Like  sandpaper  it  should  not  be  used  till  all  the 
work  with  cutting  tools  is  done.  It  can  be  manipulated  until  utterly 
worn  out. 

5.    POUNDING   TOOLS. 

The  hammer  consists  of  two  distinct  parts,  the  head  and  the 
handle.  The  head  is  made  of  steel,  so  hard  that  it  will  not  be  in- 
dented by  hitting  against  nails  or  the  butt  of  nailsets,  punches,  etc., 
which  are  comparatively  soft.  It  can  easily  be  injured  tho,  by  being 
driven  against  steel  harder  than 
itself.  The  handle  is  of  hick- 
ory and  of  an  oval  shape  to 
prevent  its  twisting  in  the  hand. 

Hammers  may  be  classified 
as  follows:  (1)  hammers  for 
striking  blows  only;  as,  the 
blacksmith's  hammer  and  the 

Stone-mason's   hammer,  and    (2) 


Fig-.  157      Resharpening-  a  Cabin- t-Scraper: 
Flattening-  the  Edgv. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


95 


ipound  hammers,  which  consist  of  two  tools  combined,  the  face  for 
striking,  and  the  "peen"  which  may  be  a  claw,  pick,  wedge,  shovel, 
chisel,  awl  or  round  head  for  other  uses.  There  are  altogether  about 
fifty  styles  of  hammers  varying  in  size  from  a  jeweler's  hammer  to  a 
blacksmith's  great  straight-handled  sledge-hammer,  weighing  twenty 
pounds  or  more.  They  are  named  mostly  according  to  their  uses; 
as,  the  riveting-hammer,  Fig.  159,  the  upholsterer's  hammer,  Fig. 
160,  the  veneering-hammer,  Fig.  162,  etc.  Magnetized  hammers, 
Fig.  161,  are  used  in  some  trades  for  driving  brads  and  tacks,  where 
it  is  hard  to  hold  them  in  place  with  the  fingers. 


158 


159 


160 


161 


162 


Fig.  158.    Claw-Hammer,  Fig.  159.    Riveting-Hammer. 

Fig-.  160.    Upholster's  Hammer,  Fig-.  161.    Magnetized  Hammer. 

Fig.  162.     Veneering-Hammer. 

In  the  "bell-faced"  hammer,  the  face  is  slightly  convex,  in  order 
that  the  last  blow  in  driving  nails  may  set  the  nail-head  below  the 
surface.  It  is  more  difficult  to  strike  a  square  blow  with  it  than  with 
a  plain-faced  hammer.  For  ordinary  woodwork  the  plain-faced,  that 
is,  flat-faced  claw-hammer,  Fig.  158,  is  best.  It  is  commonly  used  in 
carpenter  work. 

It  is  essential  that  the  face  of  the  hammer  be  kept  free  from  glue 
in  order  to  avoid  its  sticking  on  the  nail-head  and  so  bending  the 


96 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


Fig-.  163.     Drawing-  a  Nail  with 
Claw-Hammer. 


nail.  Hammers  should  be  used  to  hit  iron  only;  for  hitting  wood, 
mallets  are  used.  In  striking  with  the  hammer,  the  wrist,  the  elbow 
and  the  shoulder  are  one  or  all  brought  into  play,  according  to  the 

hardness  of  the  blow.  The  essential 
precautions  are  that  the  handle  be 
grasped  at  the  end,  that  the  blow  be 
square  and  quick,  and  that  the  wood 
be  not  injured.  At  the  last  blow  the 
hammer  should  not  follow  the  nail,  but 
should  be  brought  back  with  a  quick 
rebound.  To  send  the  nail  below  the 
surface,  a  nail  set  is  used.  (See  below.) 
The  claw  is  for  extracting  nails. 
To  protect  the  wood  in  withdrawing  a 
nail  a  block  may  be  put  under  the 
hammer-head.  When  a  nail  is  partly 
drawn,  the  leverage  can  be  greatly  in- 
creased by  continuing  to  block  up  in  this  way,  Fig.  163. 

The  mallet,  Fig.  164,  differs  from  the  hammer  in  having  a  wooden 
instead  of  a  steel  head.  A  maul  or  beetle  is  a  heavy  wooden  mallet. 
The  effect  of  the  blow  of  a  mallet  is  quite  different  from  that  of  a 
hammer,  in  that  the  force 
is  exerted  more  gradually; 
whereas  the  effect  of  the  ham- 
mer blow  is  direct,  immediate, 
and  local,  and  is  taken  up  at 
once.  But  a  mallet  continues 
to  act  after  the  first  impulse, 
pushing,  as  it  were.  This  is 
because  of  the  elasticity  of  the 
head.  A  chisel,  therefore, 
should  always  be  driven  with 
a  mallet,  for  the  chisel  handle 
would  soon  go  to  pieces  under 
the  blows  of  a  hammer,  be- 
cause of  their  suddenness; 
whereas  the  mallet  blow  which 
is  slower  will  not  only  drive 
the  blade  deeper  with  the  same  Fig.  164.  Maiiets. 


WOOD   HAND  TOOLS. 


97 


force,  but  will  not  injure  the  handle  so  rapidly.  Mallet-heads  are 
made  square,  cylindrical,  and  barrel-shaped.  Carver's  mallets  are 
often  turned  from  one  piece,  hammer  and  head  on  one  axis. 

Nailsets,   Fig.   165,  are  made  with  hardened  points,  but  softer 
butts,  so  that  the  hammer  will  not  be  injured.     They  were  formerly 
made  square  when  nail  heads 
were   square,   but   now   round 
ones  are  common.    To  obviate 
slipping,     some     have     "cup 
points,"  that  is,  with  a  con- 
cave tip,  and  some  spur  points. 

To  keep  the  nailset  in  its 
place  on  the  nail-head  it  may 
be  held  closely  against  the 
third  finger  of  the  left  hand, 
which  rests  on  the  wood  close 
to  the  nail.  When  a  nailset 
is  lacking,  the  head  of  a  brad, 
held  nearly  flat,  may  be  used, 
ing  the  wood. 

6.    HOLDING    TOOLS. 


Fig.  165.    Useing-  a  Nailset. 


But  care  is  necessary  to  avoid  bruis- 


A.  Tools  for  Holding  Work. 

The  advance  in  ease  of  handworking  may  largely  be  measured  by 
the  facilities  for  holding  materials  or  other  tools.  The  primitive 
man  used  no  devices  for  holding  except  his  hands  and  feet.  The 
Japanese,  who  perhaps  are  the  most  skilful  of  joiners,  still  largely 
use  their  fingers  and  toes.  On  the  other  hand,  Anglo-Saxons  have 
developed  an  enormous  variety  of  methods  for  holding  work  and  tools. 

Benches.  The  essential  features  of  a  work-bench  are  a  firm,  steady 
table  with  a  vise  and  places  for  tools.  The  joints  are  either  pinned 
or  wedged  mortise-and-tenon,  or  draw-bolt  joints.  The  best  benches 
are  made  of  maple,  the  tops  being  strips  joined  or  tongued-and- 
grooved  together.  It  is  common  also  to  have  a  trough  at  the  back 
of  the  top  of  the  bench,  i.  e.,  a  space  6"  or  8"  wide,  set  lower  than 
the  upper  surface,  in  which  tools  may  be  placed  so  as  not  to  roll  off. 
A  low  pillow,  fastened  at  the  left  hand  end  of  the  trough,  on  which 
to  set  planes  in  order  that  the  edge  of  the  cutter  may  not  be  injured, 
is  an  advantage.  The  tool-rack  is  of  capital  importance.  It  has 


98 


HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 


Fig-.  166.     Bench  Made  with  Pinned  Mortise-and-Tenon  Joints,  Low  Back. 


Fig.  167.     Woodworking  Bench  Used  at  Pratt  Institute,  Showing- 
Self-Adjusting-  Upright  Vise. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


99 


been  common  in  school  benches  ta  affix  it  to  a  board,  which  rises  con- 
siderably above  the  top  of  the  bench,  Fig.   169,  but  a  better  plan 
is  to  have  the  top  of  it  no  higher  than  the  bench-top,   Fig.   166. 
Then  the  light  on  the  bench 
is  not  obscured,   and  when   a 
flat   top   is   needed   for    large 
work  it  can  readily  be  had  by 
removing    the     tools.     Elabo- 
rate benches  with  lock  draw- 
ers are  also  much  used  in  the 
shops  of  large  city  schools. 

Vises  for  holding  wood  are 
of  three  general  styles,  (1) 
those  with  an  upright  wooden 

jaw,  Fig.  167,  which  holds  wide  pieces  of  work  well.  They  are  now 
made  with  an  automatic  adjusting  device  by  which  the  jaw  and  the 
face  of  the  bench  are  kept  parallel;  (2)  wooden  vises  with  a  hori- 
zontal jaw,  guided  by  parallel  runners,  Fig.  166,  and,  (3)  metal 
rapid-acting  vises,  Fig.  168.  The  latter  are  the  most  durable  and  in 


Fig.  168. 
A  Rapid- Acting  Vise. 


Fig.  169.     Holding-  a  Large  Board  in   Vise  for  Planing. 

most  respects  more  convenient.    Special  vises  are  also  made  for  wood- 
carvers,  for  saw-filing,  etc. 

The  best  woodworking  benches  are  equipped  with  both  side-  and 
tail-vises.     The  tail-vise  is  supplemented  by  movable  bench-stops  for 


100 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


Fig.  170.    Saw-Horse. 


holding  pieces  of  different  lengths.     In  planing  the  side  of  a  board 

it  is  held  in  place  between  the  tail-vise  and  one  of  the  bench-stops.    A 

board  should  not  be  squeezed  sidewise  between  the  jaws  of  a  vise 

when  it  is  to  be  planed,  lest  it 
be  bent  out  of  shape.  In  plan- 
ing the  edge  of  a  board  it  is 
ordinarily  held  in  the  side- 
vise.  A  long  board,  one  end 
of  which  is  in  the  vise,  may 
also  need  to  be  supported  at 
the  other  end.  This  may  be 
done  by  clamping  to  it  a  hand- 
screw,  the  jaw  of  which  rests 
on  the  top  of  the  bench,  Fig. 
169.  When  the  vise  is  likely 
to  be  twisted  out  of  square  by 
the  insertion  of  a  piece  of  wood 
at  one  end  of  it,  it  is  well  to 

insert  another  piece  of  equal  thickness  at  the  other  end  of  the  vise 

to  keep  it  square,  as  in  Fig.  120,  p.  S2.    In  this  case,  (Fig.  120,)  the 

extra  piece  also  supports  the  piece  being  worked  upon. 

The  vise  is  also  of  great  use  in  carrying  on  many  other  processes, 

but  a  good  workman  does  not 

use  it  to  the  exclusion  of  the 

saw-horse  and  bench-hook. 
Horses    are    of    great    use 

both  for  the  rough  sawing  of 

material    and    in    supporting 

large  pieces  during  the  process 

of  construction.    The  common 

form    is    shown    in    Fig.    170, 

but   a   more   convenient  form 

for  sawing  has  an  open  top,  as 

in  Fig.  171. 

The  picture-frame-vise,  Fig. 

172,  is  a  very  convenient  tool 

for  making  mitered  joints,  as  in  picture-frames.     The  vise  holds  two 

sides  firmly  so  that  after  gluing  they  may  be  either  nailed  together 

or  a  spline  inserted  in  a  saw  cut  previously  made.     See  Fig.  268, 


Fig-.  171.     Saw-Horse. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


101 


No.  55,  p.  181.  If  the  last  joint  in  a  picture-frame  does  not  quite 
match,  a  kerf  may  be  sawn  at  the  junction  of  the  two  pieces,  which 
can  then  be  drawn  close  together. 

Handscrews ,  Fig.  173,  consist  of  four  parts,  the  shoulder  jaw  and 

the  screw  jaw,  made  of  maple, 
and  the  end  spindle  and  the 
middle  spindle,  made  of  hick- 
ory. The  parts  when  broken, 
can  be  bought  separately. 
Handscrews  vary  in  size  from 
those  with  jaws  four  inches 
long  to  those  with  jaws  twenty- 
two  inches  long.  The  best  kind 
are  oiled  so  that  glue  will  not 
adhere  to  them.  In  adjusting 
the  jaws,  if  the  handle  of  the 
middle  spindle  is  held  in  one 
hand,  and  the  handle  of  the 

end  spindle  in  the  other  hand,  and  both  are  revolved  together,  the 
jaws  may  be  closed  or  opened  evenly,  Fig.  174.  In  use  care  must  be 
taken  to  keep  the  jaws  parallel,  in  order  to  obtain  the  greatest  pres- 
sure and  to  prevent  the  spindles  from  being  broken.  It  is  always 
important  to  have  the  jaws  press  on  the  work  evenly.  To  secure  this, 
the  middle  spindle  should  be 

tightened    first,    and    then    the         

end  spindle.  Handscrews  are 
convenient  for  a  great  variety 
of  uses,  as  clamping  up  glued 
pieces,  holding  pieces  together 
temporarily  for  boring,  Fig. 
247,  p.  153,  holding  work  at 
any  desired  angle  in  the  vise, 
as  for  chamfering  or  beveling, 


172. 
Picture-Frame-Vise. 


MIWLt 

SFineu 
CSI 


crto  snnott 


Figf.  173.     Handscrew. 


Fig.  175,  etc.* 

Clamps    are    made   of   both 
wood  and  iron,  the  most  satis- 
factory for   speed,   strength,   and   durability   are  steel-bar  carpenter 
clamps,  Fig.  176.     They  vary  in  length  from  ll/2  ft.  to  8  ft.     The 
separate  parts  are  the  steel  bar  A,  the  cast-iron  frame  B,  the  tip  C 
*See  note,  bottom  of  p.  121. 


102 


HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 


Fig.  174.    Adjusting  Handscrew. 


into  which  fits  the  screw  D,  on  the  other  end  of  which  is  the  crank  E, 

and  the  slide  F  with  its  dog  Gr,  which  engages  in  the  notches  on  the 

bar.     Any  part,  if  broken,  can 
be  replaced  separately. 

Iron  Handscrews,  also 
called  C  clamps  and  carriage- 
makers'  clamps,  Fig.  177,  are 
useful  in  certain  kinds  of  work, 
as  in  gluing  in  special  places 
and  in  wood-carving.  All  iron 
clamps  need  blocks  of  soft 
wood  to  be  placed  between  them 
and  the  finished  work. 

Pinch-dogs,  Fig.  178,  are  a 
convenient  device  for  drawing 
together  two  pieces  of  wood, 
when  injury  to  the  surfaces  in 

which  they  are  driven  does  not  matter.    They  vary  in  size  from  M" 

to  2^4".     For  ordinary  purposes  the  smallest  size  is  sufficient.     For 

especially     fine     work, 

double-pointed      tacks, 

properly  filed,  are  con- 
venient. 

The      bench-hook, 

Fig.    179,    is    a   simple 

device       for       holding 

firmly   small   pieces    of 

work    when    they     are 

being     sawn,    chiseled, 

etc.     It  also  saves  the 

bench     from     being 

marred.       The     angles 

should  be  kept  exactly 

square. 

The    miter-box,    Fig. 

180,  is  a  similar  device 

with  the  addition  of  a 

guide  for  the  saw.  The 

iron  miter-box,  Fig.  181, 


•I 


Fig.  175.    Using  a  Handscrew  to  Hold  a 
Board  at  an  Angle. 


WOOD    HAND   TOOLS. 


103 


with  the  saw  adjustable  to   various   angles,  insures  accurate  work. 
Such  tools  as  pliers,  Fig.   182,  pincers,  Fig.   183,  and  nippers, 


Fig-.  176.    Steel-Bar  Carpenter's  Clamp,     a.  Steel  Bar.    b.  Frame, 
c.  Tip.    d.  Screw,     e.  Crank,     f.  Slide,    g.  Dog. 


Fig.  184,  made  for  gripping  iron,  are  often  useful  in  the  woodwork- 
ing shop.  So  are  various  sorts  of  wrenches;  as  fixed,  socketed,  ad- 
justable, monkey-  and  pipe-wrenches. 

B.  Tools  for  holding  other  tools. 

The  brace  or  bit-stock,  Fig.  185,  holds  all  sorts  of  boring  tools 
as  well  as  screwdrivers,  dowel-pointers,  etc.     The  simple  brace  or 

bit-stock  consists  of  a  chuck,  a 

handle,  and  a  knob,  and  is  suf- 
ficient for  ordinary  use;  but 
the  ratchet-brace  enables  the 
user  to  bore  near  to  surfaces 
or  corners  where  a  complete 
sweep  cannot  be  made.  It  is 
also  useful  where  sufficient 
power  can  be  applied  only  at 
one  part  of  the  sweep.  By 
means  of  pawls  which  engage 
in  the  ratchet-wheel,  the  bit 
can  be  turned  in  either  direc- 
tion at  the  will  of  the  user.  The  size  of  the 
brace  is  indicated  by  the  "sweep,"  that  is,  the 
diameter  of  the  circle  thru  which  the  swinging 
handle  turns.  To  insert  a  bit  or  other  tool, 
Fig.  186,  grasp  firmly  with  one  hand  the  sleeve 
of  the  chuck  pointing  it  upward,  and  revolve 
the  handle  with  the  other  hand,  unscrewing  the 


Fig.  177.     Iron  Handscrew,  (Carriage- 
Maker's  Clamp). 


Fig-.  178.    Pinch-Dog 


104 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


sleeve  until  the  jaws  open  enough  to  admit  the  whole  tang  of  the  bit. 
Then  reverse  the  motion  and  the  bit  will  be  held  tightly  in  place. 


Fig-.  179.     Bench-Hook. 


Fig1.  180.     Miter-Box. 


Various  hand-,  breast-,  bench-,  bow-drills  and  automatic  drills  are  of 
use  in  doing  quick  work  and  for  boring  small  holes,  Fig.  187. 

The  screwdriver,  Fig.  188,  is  a  sort 
of  holding  tool  for  turning,  and  so  driv- 
ing screws.  Various  devices  have  been 
tried  to  prevent  the  twisting  in  the 
handle.  This  is  now  practically  assured 
in  various  makes.  The  other  important 
matter  in  a  screwdriver  is  that  the 
point  be  of  the  right  temper,  so  as 

neither  to  bend  nor  to  break.     If  the  corners  break  they  can  be  re- 
ground,  but  care  should  be  taken  not  to  make  the  angle  too  obtuse 
or  the  driver  will  slip  out  of  the  slot  in  the  screw-head.     The  bevel 
should  have   a   long  taper.     A 
shop   should   be   equipped   with 
different    sizes    of    screwdrivers 
to    fit    the    different    sizes    of 
screws.      Screwdrivers    vary    in 
size,     the     shank     ranging     in 
length   from   2^"   to   18".      A 
long  screwdriver   is  more  pow- 
erful than  a  short  one,  for  the  Fi&.  isi.  iron  Miter-Box. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


105 


crewdriver  is  rarely  exactly  in  line  with  the  axis  of  the  screw,  but 
he  handle  revolves  in  a  circle.    This  .means  an  increased  leverage,  so 

that  the  longer  the  screwdriver, 
the  greater  the  leverage. 


Jaws 


Chuck 


Fig.  182. 
Pliers. 


Fig.  183 
Pincers. 


Fig.  184. 
Nippers. 


Fig.  185.    Ratchet-Brace. 


For  heavy  work,  screwdriver-bits,  Fig.  189,  in  a  bit-stock  are  use- 
:ul,  and  for  quick  work,  the  spiral  screwdriver,  Fig.  190,  and  for 
mall  work,  the  ratchet-screwdriver. 

7.    MEASURING   AND    MARKING    TOOLS. 

It  is  a  long  step  from  the  time  when  one  inch  meant  the  width 
of  the  thumb,  and  one  foot  meant  the  length  of  the  foot,  to  the  meas- 
uring of  distances  and  of  angles  which 
vary  almost  innnitesimally.  No  such 
accuracy  is  necessary  in  measuring  wood 
as  in  measuring  metal,  but  still  there 
is  a  considerable  variety  of  tools  for 
this  purpose. 

For  measuring  distances,  the  rule, 
Fig.  191,  is  the  one  in  most  common 
use.  It  is  usually  made  of  boxwood. 
For  convenience  it  is  hinged  so  as  to 
fold.  A  rule  is  called  "two-fold"  when 
it  is  made  of  two  pieces,  "four-fold" 
when  made  of  four  pieces,  etc.  When 
measuring  or  marking  from  it,  it  can 
be  used  more  accurately  by  turning  it 
on  edge,  so  that  the  lines  of  the  gradu- 

Fig.186.    Inserting  a  Bit  in  Stock.      ationS     ^     C0me     ^^     *&***     *** 


106 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


Fig-.  187.     Hand-Drill 


188 


01 


189 


100 


Fig-.  188.     Screwdriver. 
Fig-.  189.     Screwdriver-Bit. 
Fig-.  190.     Spiral  Screwdriver. 


ll  .....  ilo  ......  |B"'"'|B 


B 


il 


iffi  .....  ffi 


Fig.  101.    Two-Foot  Rule,  Two  Fold. 


,11 


Fig.  102.     Steel  Bench-Rule. 


WOOD   HAND  TOOLS. 


107 


-       s          — 


—      g         — 


»  2 


r  •    a          — 


3 

55 


S 

CM     CM 

*    * 


S 

ss 


—      s          - 


2    = 


Fig.  193.    Back  of  Steel 
Square,  Brace  Measure. 


work.  The  one  in  most  com- 
mon use  in  school  shops,  is  a 
two-foot,  two-fold  rule.  Some 
instructors  prefer  to  have  pu- 
pils use  a  four-fold  rule,  be- 
cause that  is  the  form  com- 
monly used  in  the  woodwork- 
ing trades.  Steel  bench-rules, 
Fig.  192,  are  satisfactory  in 

school  work  because  unbreakable  and  because  they  do 
not  disappear  so  rapidly  as  pocket  rules.  They  need 
to  be  burnished  occasionally. 

The  steel  square,  Figs.  193,  194,  196,  197,  is 
useful,  not  only  as  a  straight-edge  and  try-square, 
but  also  for  a  number  of  graduations  and  tables 
which  are  stamped  on  it.  There  are  various  forms, 
but  the  one  in  most  common  use  consists  of  a  blade 
or  "body"  24"x2"  and  a  "tongue,"  16"xl^",  at  right 
angles  to  each  other.  Sargent's  trade  number  for  this 
form  is  100.  It  includes  graduations  in  hundredths, 
thirty-seconds,  sixteenths,  twelfths,  tenths,  and  eighths 
of  an  inch,  also  a  brace-measure,  an  eight-square 
measure,  and  the  Essex  board-measure.  Another  style, 
instead  of  an  Essex  board-measure,  and  the  hun- 
dredths graduation  has  a  rafter-table.  The  side  upon 
which  the  name  of  the  maker  is  stamped,  is  called 
the  "face,"  and  the  reverse  side  the  "back." 

The  brace-measure  is  to  be  found  along  the  center 
of  the  back  of  the  tongue,  Fig.  193.  It  is  used  thus : 
the  two  equal  numbers  set  one  above  the  other  rep- 
resent the  sides  of  a  square,  and  the  single  number 
to  their  right,  represents  in  inches  and  decimals,  the 
diagonal  of  that  square.  E.  g.,  |J  76.3?  means  that 
a  square  the  sides  of  which  are  54"  would  have  a 
diagonal  of  76.37". 

For  determining  the  length  of  the  long  side  (hy- 
pothenuse)  of  a  right  angle  triangle,  when  the  other 
two  given  sides  are  not  equal,  the  foot  rule,  or  an- 
other steel  square  may  be  laid  diagonally  across  the 


108 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


blade  and  arm,  and  applied 
directly  to  the  proper  grad- 
uations thereon,  and  the  dis- 
tance between  them  meas- 
ured on  the  rule.  If  the  dis- 
tance to  be  measured  is  in 
feet,  use  the  1/12"  gradua- 
tions on  the  back  of  the 


Fig.  194.    Face  of  Steel  Square, 

Octagon,  "Eight-Square," 

Scale. 


A 


A" 


square. 

To  use  the  octagonal   (or 

8-square)  scale,  Fig.  194,  which  is  along  the  center 
of  the  face  of  the  tongue,  with  the  dividers,  take  the 
number  of  spaces  in  the  scale  to  correspond  with  the 
number  of  inches  the  piece  of  wood  is  square,  and 
lay  this  distance  off  from  the  center  point,  on  each 
edge  of  the  board.  Connect  the  points  thus  obtained, 
diagonally  across  the  corners,  and  a  nearly  exact  oc- 
tagon will  be  had.  E.  g.,  on  a  board  12"  square, 
Fig.  195,  find  A.B.C.D.,  the  centers  of  each  edge. 

Now  with  the 
dividers  take  12 
spaces  from  the 
8-square  scale. 
Lay  off  this  dis- 
tance on  each 
side  as  A'  A" 
from  A,  B'  B" 
from  B,  etc. 
Now  connect  A" 
with  B',  B"  with 
C',  C"  with  D', 
D"  with  A',  and 
the  octagon  is 
obtained. 

In  making  a 
square    piece    of 

timber  octagonal,  the  same  method  is  used  on  the 
butt,  sawed  true.  When  the  distance  from  one  cen- 
ter is  laid  off,  the  marking-gage  may  be  set  to  the 


Fig.  195.    Method  of  Using-  the  Eight- 
Square  Scale  on  the  Steel-Square. 


—  o\     ~^= 


Ol       —  ^J      — = 


VO       —    ^      — — 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


109 


Fig.  196.     Back  of  Steel 

Square,     Essex    Board 

Measure. 


distance  from  the  point 
thus  obtained  to  the  corner 
of  the  timber,  and  the  piece 
gaged  from  all  four  cor- 
corners  both  ways.  Cut- 
ting off  the  outside  arrises 
to  the  gaged  lines  leaves  an 
octagonal  stick. 

The  board-measure*  is  stamped  on  the  back 
of  the  blade  of  the  square,  Fig.  196.  The  fig- 
ure 12  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  blade  is  the 
starting  point  for  all  calculations.  It  repre- 
sents a  1"  board,  12"  wide,  and  the  smaller  fig- 
ures under  it  indicate  the  length  of  boards  in 
feet.  Thus  a  board  12"  wide,  and  8'  long  meas- 
ures 8  square  feet  and  so  on  down  the  column. 
To  use  it,  for  boards  other  than  12"  wide: — 
find  the  length  of  the  board  in  feet,  under  the 
12"  marked  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  blade,  then 
run  right  or  left  along  that  line  to  the  width  of 
the  board  in  inches.  The  number  under  the 
width  in  inches  on  the  line  showing  the  length 
in  feet,  gives  the  board  feet  for  lumber  1"  thick. 

For  example,  to  measure  a  board  14'  long, 
and  11"  wide, — under  the  figure  12,  find  14 
(length  of  the  board)  ;  to  the  left  of  this,  under 
11  is  the  number  12.10;  12'  10"  is  the  board- 
measure  of  the  board  in  question.  Since  a  board 
12'  long  would  have  as  many  board  feet  in  it  as 
it  is  inches  wide,  the  B.M.  is  omitted  for  12' 
boards.  Likewise  a  board  6'  long  would  have  ^2 
the  number  of  board  feet  that  it  is  inches  wide. 
If  the  board  is  shorter  than  the  lowest  figure 
given  (8)  it  can  be  found  by  dividing  its  doub'e 
by  2.;  e.  g.,  to  measure  a  board  5'  long  and  9" 
wide,  take  10  under  the  12,  run  to  the  left  of 
the  number  under  9,  which  is  7'  6";  ^  of  this 
would  be  3'  9",  the  number  of  board  feet  in  the 
board. 


*See  page  48. 


110 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


If  the  board  to  be  meas- 
ured is  longer  than  any  fig- 
ure given,  divide  the  length 
into  two  parts  and  add  the 
result  of  the  two  parts  ob- 
tained separately.  For  ex- 
ample, for  a  board  23'  long 
and  13"  wide,— take  12'xl3" 
=13';  add  to  it,  H'xl3"=ll' 

24:'     11". 

A  good  general  rule  is  to  think  first  whether 
or  not  the  problem  can  be  done  in  one's  head 
without  the  assistance  of  the  square. 

The  table  is  made,  as  its  name,  Board-Meas- 
ure (B.M.)  implies,  for  measuring  boards,  which 
are  commonly  1"  thick.  For  material  more  than 
1"  thick,  multiply  the  B.M.  of  one  surface  by 
the  number  of  inches  thick  the  piece  measures. 

The  rafter-table  is  found  on  the  back  of 
the  body  of  the  square,  Fig.  197.  Auxiliary 
to  it  are  the  twelfth  inch  graduations,  on  the 
outside  edges,  which  may  represent  either  feet 
or  inches. 

By  the  "run"  of  the  rafter  is  meant  the  hor- 
izontal distance  when  it  is  set  in  place  from  the 


Fitr. 197. 

Steel  Square  witl 
Rafter  Table. 


Fig-.  198.    The  "Run"  and  "Rise' 
of  a  Rafter. 


end  of  its  foot  to  a  plumb  line  from  the  ridge 
end,  i.  e.,  one  half -the  width  of  the  building, 
Fig.  198.  By  the  "rise"  of  the  rafter  is  meant 
the  perpendicular  distance  from  the  ridge  end 


o  — 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


Ill 


to  the  level  of  the  foot  of  the  rafter.  By  the  pitch  is  meant  the 
ratio  of  the  rise  to  twice  the  run,,  i.  e.,  to  the  total  width  of  the 
building.  In  a  ^  pitch,  the  rise  equals  the  run,  or  y2  the  width  of 
the  building;  in  a  1/3  pitch  the  rise  is  1/3  the  width  of  the 


M. 
39 

18                                                                    • 
•16 

\     3-4 

_14 
•12              —  

Fig.  199.    Lumberman's  Board  Rule. 

building;  in  a  ^  pitch  the  rise  is  ^  the  width  of  the  building. 

To  find  the  length  of  a  rafter  by  the  use  of  the  table,  first  find 
the  required  pitch,  at  the  left  end  of  the  table.  Opposite  this  and 
under  the  graduation  on  the  edge  representing  the  run  in  feet,  will 
be  found  the  length  of  the  rafter;  e.  g.,  a  rafter  having  a  run  of  12' 
with  a  Y^  pitch,  is  13'  5"  long,  one  with  a  run  of  11'  and  a  1/3  pitch, 
is  13'  2yV,  one  with  a  run  of  7'  and  a  -|  pitch,  is  11'  2Ty 
long,  etc. 

When  the  run  is  in  inches,  the  readings  are  for  1/12  of  the  run 
in  feet;  e.  g.,  a  rafter  with  a  run  of  12"  and  a  Y^.  pitch  is  13Ty, 
one  with  a  run  of  11"  and  a  1/3  pitch,  is  13  -f^".  Where  the  run 


Fig.  200.     Try-Square. 


Fig.  201.    Miter-Square. 


Fig.  202.    Sliding  T  Bevel. 


is  in  both  feet  and  inches,  find  the  feet  and  the  inches  separately; 
and  add  together;  e.  g.,  a  rafter  with  a  run  of  11'  6",  and  a  $4 
pitch,  is  15'  6T8/  +  8Ty=16'  3T2/.* 

The  lumberman's  board-rule,  Fig.  199.     To  measure  wood  by  it, 
note  the  length  of  the  board  in  feet  at  the  end  of  the  measure.    The 


*See  Note,  bottom  of  p.  121. 


112 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


Fig.  203.     Using  the  Try-Square. 


dot  nearest  the  width  (measured  in  inches)  gives  the  B.M.  for  lum- 
ber 1"  thick. 

The  try-square,  Fig.  200,  which  is  most  commonly  used  for  meas- 
uring the  accuracy  of  right 
angles,  is  also  convenient  for 
testing  the  width  of  a  board 
at  various  places  along  its 
length,  for  making  short  meas- 
urements, and  as  a  guide  in 
laying  out  lines  with  a  pencil 
or  knife  at  right  angles  to  a 
surface  or  edge.  It  is  well  to 
test  the  try-square  for  accur- 
acy, by  pressing  the  head 
against  a  straight  edge,  draw- 
ing a  fine  line  along  the  blade, 
turning  over  the  try-square 
and  trying  the  blade  along  the 
line  just  drawn.  The  sizes  are 

various  and  are  indicated  by  the  length  of  the  blade.     A  convenient 

size  for  the  individual  bench  and  for  ordinary  use  has  a  blade  6"  long. 

It  is  also  well  to  have  in  the  shop  one  large  one  with  a  12"  blade. 
In  testing  the  squareness  of  work  with  the  try-square,  care  must 

be  taken  to  see  that  the 

head  rests  firmly  against 

the   surface    from    which 

the  test  is  made,  and  then 

slipped     down    till     the 

blade  touches    the    edge 

being   tested,      Fig   203. 

The  edge  should  be  tested 

at    a    number    of   places 

in  the  same  way ;  that  is, 

it    should    not    be     slid 

along     the     piece.     The 

try-square  is  also  of  great 

use  in  scribing  lines  across  boards,  Fig.  204.     A  good  method  is  to 

put  the  point  of  the  knife  at  the  beginning  of  the  desired  line,  slide 

the  square  along  until  it  touches  the  knife-blade;  then,  holding  the 

.  head  of  the  square  firmly  against  the  edge,  draw  the  knife  along, 


Fig.  204.     Scribing  with  Knife 
by  Try-Square. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


113 


pressing  it  lightly  against  the  blade,  holding  it  perpendicularly.  To 
prevent  the  knife  from  running  away  from  the  blade  of  the  try- 
square,  turn  its  edge  slightly  towards  the  blade. 

The  miter-square,  Fig.  201,  is  a  try-square  fixed  at  an  angle  of  45°. 

The  sliding  T  level,  Fig. 
202,  has  a  blade  adjustable  to 
any  angle.  It  may  be  set 
either  from  a  sample  line, 
drawn  on  the  wood,  from  a 
given  line  on  a  protractor, 
from  drawing  triangles,  from 
the  graduations  on  a  framing 
square,  or  in  other  ways.  It 
is  used  similarly  to  the  T- 
square. 

Winding-sticks,  Fig.  205,  consist  of  a  pair  of  straight  strips  of 
exactly  the  same  width  thruout.  They  are  used  to  find  out  whether 
there  is  any  twist  or  "wind"  in  a  board.  This  is  done  by  placing 
them  parallel  to  each  other,  one  at  one  end  of  the  board,  and  the  other 
at  the  other  end.  By  sighting  across  them,  one  can  readily  see 
whether  the  board  be  twisted  or  not,  Fig.  206.  The  blades  of  two 
framing-squares  may  be  used  in  the  same  manner. 

Compasses  or  dividers,  Fig.  207,  consist  of  two  legs  turning  on  a 
joint,  and  having  sharpened  points.     A  convenient  form  is  the  wing 
divider  which  can  be  accurately  adjusted  by  set-screws.     A   pencil 
can  be  substituted  for  the  re- 
movable point.    They  are  used 
for  describing  circles  and  arcs, 
for  spacing,  for  measuring,  for 
subdividing  distances,  and  for 
scribing.      In   scribing   a   line 
parallel  with  a  given  outline, 
one  leg  follows  the  given  edge, 
or   outline,   and   the   point  of 
the  other,   marks   the   desired 

line.  Used  in  this  way  they  are  very  convenient  for  marking  out 
chamfers,  especially  on  curved  edges,  a  sharp  pencil  being  substituted 
for  the  steel  point. 


Fig".  206.     Method  of  Using" 
the  Winding-Sticks. 


114 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


The  beam-compass,  Fig.  208,  consists  of  two  trammel-points  run- 
ning on  a  beam  which  may  be  made  of  any  convenient  length.  It  is 
used  for  describing  large  circles.  A  pencil  may  be  attached  to  one 
point. 

Calipers,  outside  and  inside,  Figs.  209,  210,  are  necessary  for  the 
accurate  gaging  of  diameters,  as  in  wood-turning. 


207 


208 


209 


Fig.  207.     Winged  Dividers.        Fig-.  208.     Beam-Compass  or  Trammel  Points. 
Fig.  209.     Outside  Calipers.  Fig.  210.    Inside  Calipers. 

The  marking-gage,  Fig.  211,  consists  of  a  head  or  block  sliding 
on  a  beam  or  bar,  to  which  it  is  fixed  by  means  of  a  set-screw  pressing 
on  the  gib.  On  the  face  of  the  head  is  a  brass  shoe  to  keep  the  face  from 
wearing.  Projecting  thru  the  beam  is  a  steel  spur  or  point,  which  should 
be  filed  to  a  flat,  sharp  edge,  a  little  rounded  and  sharpened  on  the 
edge  toward  which  the  gage  is  to  be  moved,  Fig.  212.  It  should  pro- 
ject about  y%'  from  the  beam.  If  the  spur  be  at  all  out  of  place,  as 
it  is  likely  to  be,  the  graduations  on  a  beam  will  be  unreliable.  Hence 
it  is  best  to  neglect  them  entirely  when  setting  the  gage  and  always 
to  measure  with  the  rule  from  the  head  to  the  spur,  Fig.  213. 

In  use  the  beam  should  be  tilted  forward,  so  as  to  slide  on  its 

corner,  Fig.  214.  In  this  way 


r  . 
bib 


Fig.  211.    Marking-Gage. 


Fig.  212.     Spur  of  Marking-Gage. 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


115 


the  depth  of  the  gage  line  can  ^be  regulated.  Ordinarily,  the  finer 
the  line  the  better.  The  head  must  always  be  kept  firmly  pressed 
against  the  edge  of  the  wood  so  that  the  spur  will  not  run  or  jump 


Fig-.  213.    Setting-  a  Marking-Gage. 

away  from  its  desired  course.  Care  should  also  be  taken,  except  in 
rough  pieces,  to  run  gage  lines  no  farther  than  is  necessary  for  the 
sake  of  the  appearance  of  the  finished  work.  To  secure  accuracy,  all 
gaging  on  the  surface  of  wood,  should  be  done  from  the  "working 
face"  or  "working  edge." 

It  is  sometimes  advisable,  as  in  laying  out  chamfers,  not  to  mark 
their  edges  with  a  marking- 
gage,  because  the  marks  will 
show  after  the  chamfer  is 
planed  off.  A  pencil  mark 
should  be  made  instead.  For 
this  purpose  a  pencil-gage  may 
be  made  by  removing  the  spur 
of  a  marking-gage,  and  boring 
in  its  place  a  hole  to  receive  a 
pencil  stub  with  a  blunt  point, 
or  a  small  notch  may  be  cut 
in  the  back  end  of  the  beam, 
in  which  a  pencil  point  is  held 
while  the  gage  is  worked  as 
usual  except  that  its  position 
is  reversed.  For  work  requir- 
ing less  care,  the  pencil  may 


Fig.  214.     Using  the  Marking-Gage. 


116 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


Fig.  215.     Marking-Gage  for  Curves. 


be  held  in  the  manner  usual  in 
writing,  the  middle  finger  serv- 
ing as  a  guide,  or  a  pair  of 
pencil  compasses  may  be  used, 
one  leg  serving  as  a  guide.  A 
special  gage  is  made  for  gag- 
ing curved  lines,  Fig.  215. 

The  cutting-gage,  Fig.  216,  is  similar  to  a  marking-gage,  except 
that  it  has  a  knife-point  inserted  instead  of  a  spur.  It  is  very  useful 
in  cutting  up  soft,  thin  wood  even  as  thick  as  I/A." . 

The  slitting-gage  is  used  in  a  sim- 
ilar way,  but  is  larger  and  has  a  handle. 
The  mortise-gage,  Fig.  217,  is  a 
marking-gage  with  two  spurs,  with 
which  two  parallel  lines  can  be  drawn 
at  once,  as  in  laying  out  mortises.  One 
form  is  made  entirely  of  steel  having, 
instead  of  spurs,  discs  with  sharp- 
ened edges. 

The   scratch-awl,    Fig.    218,   has   a 

long,  slender  point  which  is  useful  not  only  for  marking  lines,  but 
for  centering. 

The  auger-lit- gage,  Fig. 
219,  is  a  convenient  tool  for 
measuring  the  depth  of  holes 
bored,  but  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses a  block  of  wood  sawn 
to  the  proper  length  thru 
which  a  hole  is  bored,  is  a 
satisfactory  substitute. 

Screw-  and  wire-gages,  Fig.  220,  are  useful  in  measuring  the 
lengths  and  sizes  of  screws  and  wire  when  fitting  or  ordering. 

The  spirit-level,  and  the  plumb-line  which  it  has  largely  replaced, 
are  in  constant  use  in  carpentering,  but  are  rarely  needed  in  shopwork. 


Fig.  216.    Cutting-Gage. 


Fig.  217.    Roller  Mortise-Gage. 


Fig.  218.     Scratch-Awl. 


Fig.  219.     Auger-Bit-Gage 


WOOD   HAND  TOOLS. 


117 


Blackboard,  compasses,  triangles,  etc.,  are  convenient  accessories 
in  a  woodworking  classroom. 

8.    SHARPENING  TOOLS. 

The  grindstone  for  woodworking  tools  is  best  when  rather  fine 
find  soft.  The  grinding  surface  should  be  straight  and  never  concave. 
The  stone  should  run  as  true  as  possible.  It  can  be  made  true  by 


a.  Screw-Gage. 


Fig-.  220.     Screw-  and  Wire-Gages. 
b.  Wire-Gage. 


c.  Twist-Drill-Gage. 


using  a  piece  of  1"  gas  pipe  as  a  truing  tool  held  against  the  stone 
when  run  dry.  Power  grindstones  usually  have  truing  devices  attached 
to  them,  Fig.  221.  A  common  form  is  a  hardened  steel  screw,  the 
thread  of  which,  in  working  across  the  face  of  the  grindstone,  as  they 
both  revolve,  shears  off  the  face  of  the  stone.  The  surface  should 
always  be  wet  when  in  use  both  to  carry  off  the  particles  of  stone 
and  steel,  and  thus  preserve  the  cutting  quality  of  the  stone,  and  to 
keep  the  tool  cool,  as  otherwise,  its  temper  would  be  drawn,  which 
would  show  by  its  turning  blue.  But  a  grindstone  should  never 
stand  in  water  or  it  would  rot. 


118 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


It  is  well  to  have  the  waste  from  the  grindstone  empty  into  a 
cisternlike  box  under  it,  Fig.  221.  In  this  box  the  sediment  will 
settle  while  the  water  overflows  from  it  into  the  drain.  Without 
such  a  box,  the  sediment  will  be  carried  into  and  may  clog  the  drain. 
The"  box  is  to  be  emptied  occasionally,  before  the  sediment  overflows. 


Fig.  221.     Power  Grindstone. 


In  order  that  the  tool  may  be  ground  accurately,  there  are  vari- 
ous devices  for  holding  it  firmly  and  steadily  against  the  stone.  A 
good  one  is  shown  in  Figs.  221  and  222.  This  device  is  constructed 
as  follows:  A  board  A  is  made  2"  thick,  6"  wide,  and  long  enough 
when  in  position  to  reach  from  the  floor  to  a  point  above  the  level 
of  the  top  of  the  stone.  It  is  beveled  at  the  lower  end  so  as  to  rest 
snugly  against  a  cleat  nailed  down  at  the  proper  place  on  the  floor. 
The  board  is  held  in  place  by  a  loop  of  iron,  B,  which  hooks  into 
the  holes  in  the  trough  of  the  grindstone.  In  the  board  a  series  of 
holes  (say  1"  in  diameter)  are  bored.  These  run  parallel  to  the 
floor  when  the  board  is  in  place,  and  receive  the  end  of  the  tool- 


WOOD   HAND   TOOLS. 


119 


holder.  The  tool-holder  consists  of  four  parts:  (1)  a  strip  C,  iy2" 
thick,  and  as  wide  as  the  widest  plane-bit  to  be  ground.  The  for- 
ward end  is  beveled  on  one  side;  the  back  end  is  rounded  to  fit  the 
holes  in  the  main  board  A.  Its  length  is  determined  by  the  distance 


Fig.  222.    Grinding-  Device. 


from  the  edge  of  the  tool  being  ground  to  the  most  convenient  hole 
in  A,  into  which  the  rear  end  is  to  be  inserted.  It  is  better  to  use 
as  high  a  hole  as  convenient,  so  that  as  the  grindstone  wears  down, 


Fig-.  223.     Holder  for  Grinding  Chisels  or  Plane-Bits. 

the  stick  will  still  be  serviceable;  (2)  a  strip,  D,  of  the  same  width 
as  A  and  J/8"  thick,  and  15"  to  18"  long;  (3)  a  cleat,  E,  ^"x^", 
nailed  across  D;  (4)  a  rectangular  loop  of  wrought  iron  or  brass,  F, 


120  HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 

which  passes  around  the  farther  end  of  the  two  strips,  C  and  D,  and 
is  fastened  loosely  to  D  by  staples  or  screws. 

The  tool  to  be  ground  slips  between  this  loop  and  the  strip  C,  and 
is  held  firmly  in  place  by  the  pressure  applied  to  the  back  end  of  D, 
which  thus  acts  as  a  lever  on  the  fulcrum  E. 

Any  desired  bevel  may  be  obtained  on  the  tool  to  be  sharpened, 
by  choosing  the  proper  hole  in  A  for  the  back  end  of  C  or  by  ad- 
justing the  tool  forward  or  backward  in  the  clamp.  As  much  pres- 
sure may  be  put  on  the  tool  as  the  driving  belt  will  stand  without 
slipping  off. 

A  still  simpler  holder  for  the  plane-bit  only,  is  a  strip  of  wood 
1^/2"  thick  and  2"  wide,  cut  in  the  shape  G-  shown  in  Fig.  223.  The 
p'ane-bit  fits  into  the  saw-kerf  K,  and  in  grinding  is  easily  held 
firmly  in  place  by  the  hand.  By  inserting  the  rear  end  of  the  stick 
G  into  a  higher  or  lower  hole  in  the  board  A,  any  desired  angle  may 
be  obtained.  G  is  shown  in  position  in  Fig.  221. 

All  such  devices  necessitate  a  perfectly  true  stone.  The  essential 
features  are,  to  have  a  rigid  support  against  which  the  tool  may  be 
pushed  by  the  revolving  stone,  to  hold  the  tool  at  a  fixed  ang'e  which 
may  be  adjusted,  and  to  press  the  tool  against  the  stone  with  con- 
siderable pressure.  The  wheel  should  revolve  toward  the  edge  which 

is  being  ground,  for  two  rea- 
sons. It  is  easier  to  hold  the 
tool  steadily  thus,  and  the 
danger  of  producing  a  wire 
edge  is  lessened.  The  edge  as 
it  becomes  thin,  tends  to 
spring  away  from  the  stone 
and  this  tendency  is  aggra- 
vated if  the  stone  revolves 
away  from  the  edge.  If  the 
stone  does  not  run  true  and 
there  is  a  consequent  danger 
of  digging  into  the  stone  with 

the  tool  which  is  being  sharpened,  the  stone  would  better  revolve 
away  from  the  edge.  The  grinding  should  continue  until  the  ground 
surface  reaches  the  cutting  edge  and  there  is  no  bright  line  left  along 
the  edge.  If  the  grinding  is  continued  beyond  this  point,  nothing  is 
gained,  and  a  heavy  wire  edge  will  be  formed. 


WOOD   HAND  TOOLS. 


121 


A  very  convenient  and  inexpensive  grinding  tool,  Fig.  224,  sold 
as  the  "Agacite  grinder/'''  has  a  nuinber  of  different  shaped  grinding 
stones  made  chiefly  of  carborundum.  Others  on  the  market  have  the 
additional  advantage  that  the  gears  are  all  safely  enclosed;  e.  g.,  the 
Robertson  Tool  Grinder,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

The  oilstone.    After  grinding,  edge  tools  need  whetting.    This  is 
done  on  the  whetstone,  or  oilstone.    The  best  natural  stones  are  found 
near  Hot  Springs,  Arkansas.     The  fine  white  ones  are  called  Arkan- 
sas stones,  and  the  coarser  ones  Washita  stones.    The  latter  are  better 
for  ordinary  woodworking  tools.     The  India  oilstone,  an   artificial 
stone,  Fig.  77,  p.  58,  cuts  even  more  quickly  than  the  natural  stones. 
It  is  made  in  several  grades  of  coarseness.    The 
medium  grade  is  recommended  for  ordinary  shop 
use.     Oil  is  used  on  oilstones  for  the  same  pur- 
pose as  water  on  a  grindstone.     When  an  oil- 
stone becomes  hollow  or  uneven  by  use,  it  may 
be  trued  by  rubbing  it  on  a  flat  board  covered 
with  sharp  sand,  or  on  sandpaper  tacked  over  a  block  of  wood. 

Slipstones,  Fig.  225,  are  small  oilstones,  made  into  various  shapes 
in  order  to  fit  different  tools,  as  gouges,  the  bits  of  molding-planes,  etc. 


225    Slipstone. 


,  —  J 

Fig-  225  A.    Jorgeason  Adjustable  Handscrews. 

Files  are  used  for  sharpening  saws,  augers,  scrapers,  etc.  See 
above,  p.  90. 

9.    CLEANING    TOOLS. 

The  bench  duster.  One  may  be  noted  hanging  on  the  bench  shown 
in  Fig.  166,  p.  98.  Bristle  brushes  for  cleaning  the  benches  are 
essential  if  the  shop  is  to  be  kept  tidy. 


7Made  by  the  Empire  Implement  Co.,  Albany,  N.  Y 


121a 


HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 


Buffer.  When  ever  a  lather  or  other  convenient  revolving  shaft 
is  available,  a  buffer  made  of  many  thicknesses  of  cotton  cloth  is  very 
valuable  for  polishing  tools.  The  addition  of  a  little  tripoli  greatly 
facilitates  the  cleaning. 

NOTE  1 : — An  improved  type  of  handscrew  is  the  Jorgensen  adjust- 
able, having  steel  spindles,  which  are  practically  indestructible.  The 
jaws  can  be  adjusted  to  any  angle  and  position  with  great  rapidity 
and  force.  See  Fig.  225A. 

JSToTE  2 : — One  of  the  common  and  convenient  uses  of  the  steel 
square  is  to  obtain  the  two  angles — other  than  the  right  angle — of  a 

right  angled  triangle,  when  the 
ratio  of  the  two  legs  is  known. 
These  are  often  called  the  bat- 
ters. This  is  done  by  laying  the 
square  on  a  straight  edge  in 
such  a  way  that  the  distance  on 
the  tongue  from  the  heel  of  the 
square  corresponds  to  the  length 
Fig-.  225  B  of  one  leg  and  the  distance  on 

the  other  blade  to  the  other  leg. 

The  angles  made  with  the  straight  edge  are  the  "batters."     See  Fig. 
225B. 

This  method  is  used,  for  example,  in  obtaining  the  cuts  of  braces 
and  of  plain  rafters,  and  in  laying  out  stairs.  The  angles  at  the 
ends  of  the  side  rails  of  a  chair  (See  p.  198)  can  be  obtained  by  this 
means. 


WOOD    HAND    TOOLS. 


121b 


WOOD  HAND  TOOLS. — Continued. 


REFERENCES : * 


(4)  Scraping  Tools. 

Barnard,   pp.    136-142. 
Wheeler,  pp.  465,  473. 

( 5 )  Pounding  Tools. 

Barnard,   pp.    24-47. 

Sickels,   p.   70. 

Wheeler,  pp.  414,  428-432. 

(6)  Punching   Tools. 

Barnard,   p.   29. 
Wheeler,   p.    433. 

(7)  Gripping  Tools. 
For  holding  work: 

Goss,  p.  63. 

Wheeler,  pp.  65-75,  475. 
For  holding  other  tools: 
Goss,  pp.   56-59. 

(8)  Measuring  and  Marking  Tools. 

Goss,  pp.  9-20. 
Griffith,  pp.  9-19. 
Hodgson,  The  Steel  Square. 
Wheeler,  p.  465. 
Tate,    pp.    21-25. 

(9)  Sharpening  Tools. 

Barnard,    pp.    136-142. 
Sickels,  pp.  80-85. 
Wheeler,  pp.  480-488. 


Griffith,  pp.  71-75. 
Selden,  pp.   149,  177,   182. 
Hodgson,  I,  pp.  61-74. 

Selden,  pp.  31,   111,  156. 
Goss,  p.  60. 
Barter,   p.    128. 

Selden,  p.  161. 


Selden,  pp.  140,  147,  186,  194. 
Hammacher,   pp.   286-291. 

Selden,  p.   143. 

Building  Trades  Pocketbook,  pp.  234- 

237. 

Selden,  pp.  149,  150-152,  175. 
Sargent's  Steel  Squares. 


Selden,  pp.    153,   162,    172,   180. 
Goss,  pp.   39,   64-69. 


*For  general  bibliography  see  p.  4. 


CHAPTER  V. 


WOOD  FASTENINGS. 

The  following  are  the  chief  means  by  which  pieces  of  wood  are 
fastened  together:  nails,  screws,  bolts,  plates,  dowels,  glue,  hinges, 
and  locks. 

NAILS 

Nails,  Fig.  226,  may  be  classified  according  to  the  material  of 
which  they  are  made;    as,  steel,  iron,  copper,  and  brass.     Iron  nails 
may  be  galvanized  to  protect  them  from  rust.    Copper  and  brass  nails 
are  used  where  they  are  subject  to  much  danger 
of  corrosion,  as  in  boats. 

Nails  may  also  be  classified  according  to  the 
process  of  manufacture;  as,  cut  nails,  wrought 
nails,  and  wire  nails.  Cut  nails  are  cut  from  a 
plate  of  metal  in  such  a  way  that  the  width  of 
the  nail  is  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  plate, 
and  the  length  of  the  nail  to  the  width  of  the 
plate.  In  the  third  dimension,  the  nail  is 
wedge-shaped,  thin  at  the  point  and  thick  at 
the  head.  Unless  properly  driven,  such  nails 
are  likely  to  split  the  wood,  but  if  properly 
driven  they  are  very  firm.  In  driving,  the 
wedge  should  spread  with  and  not  across  the 
grain. 

Wrought  nails  are  worked  into  shape  from  hot  steel,  and  have 
little  or  no  temper,  so  that  they  can  be  bent  over  without  breaking, 
as  when  clinched.  Horseshoe-  and  trunk-nails  are  of  this  sort.  They 
are  of  the  same  shape  as  cut  nails. 

Wire  nails  are  made  from  drawn  steel  wire,  and  are  pointed, 
headed,  and  roughened  by  machinery.  They  are  comparatively  cheap, 
hold  nearly  if  not  quite  as  well  as  cut  nails,  which  they  have  largely 
displaced,  can  be  bent  without  breaking,  and  can  be  clinched. 

123 


Fig-.  226.  a.  Cut  nail, 
common,  b.  Flat-head 
wire  nail,  No.  1,  com- 
mon, c.  Finishing-nail, 
or  brad. 


124  HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 

Nails  are  also  classified  according  to  the  shape  of  their  heads; 
as,  common  or  flat-heads,  and  brads  or  finishing  nails.  Flat-heads 
are  used  in  ordinary  work,  where  the  heads  are  not  to  be  sunk  in 
the  wood  or  "set/' 

Some  nails  get  their  names  from  their  special  uses;  as,  shingle- 
nails,  trunk-nails,  boat-nails,  lath-nails,  picture-nails,  barrel-nails,  etc. 
The  size  of  nails  is  indicated  by  the  length  in  inches,  and  by  the 
size  of  the  wire  for  wire  nails.  The  old  nomenclature  for  cut  nails 
also  survives,  in  which  certain  numbers  are  prefixed  to  "penny."  For 
example,  a  threepenny  nail  is  1^4"  l°ng>  a  fourpenny  nail  is  IJ^" 
long,  a  fivepenny  nail  is  1$4"  long,  a  sixpenny  nail  is  2"  long.  In 
other  words,  from  threepenny  to  tenpenny  %"  is  added  for  each 
penny,  but  a  twelvepenny  nail  is  3^4"  long,  a  sixteenpenny  nail  is 
3^"  long,  a  twentypenny  nail  is  4"  long.  This  is  explained  as  mean- 
ing that  "tenpenny"  nails,  for  example,  cost  tenpence  a  hundred. 
Another  explanation  is  that  originally  1000  of  such  nails  weighed 
a  pound.  The  size  of  cut  nails  is  usually  still  so  indicated.  Nails 
are  sold  by  the  pound. 

The  advantages  of  nails  are  that  they  are  quickly  and  easily  ap- 
plied, they  are  strong  and  cheap,  and  the  work  can  be  separated,  tho 
with  difficulty.  The  disadvantages  are  the  appearance  and,  in  some 
cases,  the  insecurity. 

The  holding  power  of  nails  may  be  increased  by  driving  them 
into  the  wood  at  other  than  a  right  angle,  especially  where  several 
nails  unite  two  pieces  of  wood.     By  driving  some  at 
one  inclination  and  some  at  another,  they  bind  the 
pieces  of  wood  together  with  much  greater  force  than 
W  when  driven  in  straight. 

The  term  brads   was   once  confined  to  small  fin- 
\j  ishing  nails,  but  is  now  used  for  all  finishing  nails, 

in  distinction  from  common  or  flat-headed  nails.  The 
heads  are  made  round  instead  of  flat  so  that  they  may 


Fig.  227.  Tack.        foe  gef-  easiiy  wjth  a  nailset  and  the  hole  filled  with 
a   plug,   or,  where  the  wood   is  to   be   painted,  with 
putty.     They  are  used  for  interior  finishing  and  other  nice  work. 

Taclcs,  Fig.  227,  vary  in  size  and  shape  according  to  their  use; 
as,  flat-headed,  gimp,  round-headed,  and  double-pointed  or  matting 
tacks,  a  sort  of  small  staple.  Their  size  is  indicated  by  the  word 
"ounce/'  For  example,  a  two-ounce  tack  is  l/^"  long,  a  three-ounce 


WOOD    FASTENINGS.  125 

tack  is  y%"  long,  a  four-ounce  tack  is  7/16"  long,  a  six-ounce  tack  is 
y2"  long,  etc.  This  term  once  meant  the  number  of  ounces  of  iron 
required  to  make  1000  tacks. 

Tacks  are  useful  only  in  fastening  to  wood  thin  material,  such  as 
veneers,  textiles,  leather,  matting,  tin,  etc.    Tinner's  tacks,  which  are 
used  for  clinching,  are  commonly  called  clinch-nails.     Wire  tacks, 
altho  made,  are  not  so  successful  as  cut  tacks 
because  they  lack  a  sharp  point,  which  is  es- 
sential. 

Corrugated  fasteners,  Fig.  228,  or  fluted 
nails,  are  used  to  fasten  together  two  pieces 
of  wood  by  driving  the  fastener  so  that  one- 
half  of  it  will  be  on  each  side  of  the  joint. 
Their  size  is  indicated  by  the  length  and  the 


T///      .  r™  Fig.  228.    Corrugated 

number  ot  corrugations,  as  y?.  ,  four.     Ihey  Fastener, 

are  often  useful  where  nails  are  impracticable. 

Glaziers'  points  are  small,  triangular  pieces  of  zinc,  used  to  fasten 
glass  into  sashes. 

SCREWS 

(a)  Wood-screws,  Fig.  229,  may  be  classified  by  the  material  of 
which  they  are  made;   as,  steel  or  brass.     Steel  screws  may  be  either 
bright, — the  common  finish, — blued  by  heat  or  acid  to  hinder  rust- 
ing, tinned,  or  bronzed.     Brass   screws   are  essential  wherever  rust 
would  be  detrimental,  as  in  boats. 

(b)  Screws  are  also  classified  by  shape;    as,  flat-headed,  round- 
headed,  fillister-headed,  oval-countersunk-headed,  and  square-headed 
screws.    Flat-heads  are  most  commonly  used.     There  are  also  special 
shapes  for  particular  purposes.     Eound-heads  may  be  used  either  for 
decoration  or  where  great  drawing  power  is  desirable.     In  the  latter 
case,  washers  are  commonly  inserted  under  the  heads  to  prevent  them 
from  sinking  into  the  wood.     Oval-heads  are  used  decoratively,  the 
head  filling  the  countersunk  hole,  as  with  flat-heads,  and  projecting 
a  trifle  besides.    They  are  much  used  in  the  interior  finish  of  railway 
cars.    They  are  suitable  for  the  strap  hinges  of  a  chest. 

The  thread  of  the  screw  begins  in  a  fine  point  so  that  it  may 
penetrate  the  wood  easily  where  no  hole  has  been  bored  as  is  often 
the  case  in  soft  wood.  The  thread  extends  about  two-thirds  the 
length  of  the  screw.  Any  longer  thread  would  only  weaken  the 


126 


•    HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


screw  where  it  most  needs  strength,  near  the  head,  and  it  does  not 
need  friction  with  the  piece  thru  which  it  passes. 

The  size  of  screws  is  indicated  by  their  length  in  inches,  and  by 
the  diameter  of  the  wire  from  which  they  are  made,  using  the  stand- 
ard screw-gage,  Fig.  220,  p.  117.  They  vary  in  size  from  No.  0 
(less  than  1/16")  to  No.  30  (more  than  7/16")  in  diameter,  and  in 
length  from  ^"  to  6". 

The  following  is  a  good 
general  rule  for  the  use  of 
screws:  make  the  hole  in  the 
piece  thru  which  the  screw 
passes,  large  enough  for  the 
screw  to  slip  thru  easily. 
Countersink  this  hole  enough 
to  allow  the  head  to  sink  flush 
with  the  surface.  Make  the 
hole  in  the  piece  into  which 
the  screw  goes  small  enough 
for  the  thread  of  the  screw  to 
catch  tight.  Then  all  the 
strength  exerted  in  driving, 
goes  toward  drawing  the  pieces 
together,  not  in  overcoming 
friction.  The  hole  must  be  deep  enough,  especially  in  hard  wood  and 
for  brass  screws,  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  twisting  off  and  breaking 
the  screw.  Soap  is  often  useful  as  a  lubricant  to  facilitate  the  driving 
of  screws.  Where  it  is  desirable  that  the  heads  do  not  show,  a  hole 
may  first  be  bored  with  an  auger-bit  large  enough  to  receive  the  head 
and  deep  enough  to  insert  a  plug  of  wood,  which  is  cut  out  with  a 
plug-cutter,  Fig.  131,  p.  84,  and  glued  in  place.  If  pains  are  taken 
to  match  the  grain,  the  scar  thus  formed  is  inconspicuous. 

In  rough  work,  the  screw  may  be  driven  into  place  with  a  ham- 
mer thru  most  of  its  length,  and  then  a  few  final  turns  be  given 
with  a  screwdriver,  but  this  breaks  the  fibers  of  the  wood  and  weakens 
their  hold.  In  "drive-screws/'  Fig.  229,  c,  the  slot  is  not  cut  all  the 
way  across  the  head,  in  order  that  the  blows  of  the  hammer  may  not 
close  the  slot. 

The  advantages  of  screws  are,  that  they  are  very  strong  and  that 
the  work  can  easily  be  taken  apart.  If  they  loosen  they  can  be 


Fig.  229.  a.  Flat- head  Wood-screw, 
b.  Round-head  Wood-screw,  c.  Fillister- 
head  Wood-screw.  d.  Oval-countersunk- 
head  Wood-screw  e.  Drive-screw,  f .  Square- 
head (lag-or-coach-)  Screw. 


WOOD   FASTENINGS. 


127 


retightened.  The  disadvantages  .are,  that  they  are  expensive,  that 
they  take  time  to  insert,  that  they  show  very  plainly,  and  that  they 
do  not  hold  well  in  end  grain. 

BOLTS 

Bolts  with  nuts  are  useful  where  great  strength  is  desired.   There 
are  three  chief  varieties,  Fig.  230. 

Stove-bolts  are  cheaply  made  (cast)  bolts 
having  either  flat  or  round  heads  with  a  slot  for 
the  screwdriver,  like  ordinary  screws. 

Carriage-bolts  are  distinguished  by  having 
the  part  of  the  shank  which  is  near  the  head, 
square. 

Machine-bolts  have  square,  hexagonal,  or 
button  heads. 

Machine-screws,  Fig.  231,  are  similar  to 
stove-bolts,  but  are  accurately  cut  and  are  meas- 
ured with  a  screw-gage.  The  varieties  are,  a, 
flat-head,  b,  round-head,  c,  fillister-head,  d,  oval- 
countersunk-head,  all  with  slots  for  screwdriver. 
Plates,  Fig.  232,  include  corner-irons,  straight 
plates  and  panel-irons.  These  are  made  of 
either  iron  or  brass  and  are  used  in  fastening  legs  to  the  floor,  in 
stiffening  joints,  affixing  tops,  etc. 

Dowel-rods.     Dowel-rods  are  cylindrical  rods,  from  3/16"  to  1" 

in  diameter,  and  36",  42",  and  48"  long.    They  are  commonly  made 

of  birch  or  maple,  but  maple  is  more  satisfactory  as  it  shrinks  less 

and  is  stronger  than  birch.    They  are  made  both  for  snug  and  loose  fit. 

Dowels  are  used  as  pins  for  joining  boards  edge  to  edge,  and  as 

a   substitute   for   mortise-and- 
tenon  joints. 

There  is,  to  be  sure,  a  prej- 
udice against  dowels  on  the 
part  of  cabinet-makers  due, 
possibly,  to  the  willingness  to 
have  it  appear  that  doweling 
is  a  device  of  inferior  me- 
chanics. But  doweling  is 
cheaper  and  quicker  than  ten- 


Figr.    230.       a.    Stove- 
bolt,  b.  Carriag-e-bolt. 
c.    Machine-bolt. 


Fip.   231.        Machine-screws,     a.  Flat-head' 

b.  Round-head,    c.  Fillister-head,    d.  Oval" 

countersunk-head. 


128 


HANDWOKK    IN    WOOD. 


oning,  and  there  are  many  places  in  wood  construction  where  it  is 
just  as  satisfactory  and,  if  properly  done,  just  as  strong.  Certain 
parts  of  even  the  best  furniture  are  so  put  together. 

Shoe  pegs  serve  well  as  small  dowels.     They  are  dipped  in  glue 
and  driven  into  brad-awl  holes. 

Wedges  are 
commonly  used  in 
door  construction 
between  the  edges 
of  tenons  and  the 
insides  of  mor- 
tises which  are 
slightly  beveled, 
No.  34,  Fig.  266, 
p.  179.  Or  the 
end  of  a  tenon 


Fig-.  232.    a.  Corner-iron,     b.  Straight  plate,    c.   Panel-iron.. 


ceive  the  wedges,  No.  35,    Fig.  266. 
fox-tail  joint,  No.  36,  Fig.  266. 


may  be  split  to  re- 
The blind  wedge  is  used  in  the 


GLUE 


Glue  is  an  inferior  kind  of  gelatin,  and  is  of  two  kinds,  —  animal 
g]ue  and  fish  glue.  Animal  glue  is  made  of  bones  and  trimmings, 
cuttings  and  fleshings  from  hides  and  skins  of  animals.  Sinews, 
feet,  tails,  snouts,  ears,  and  horn  pith  are  also  largely  used.  Cattle, 
calves,  goats,  pigs,  horses,  and  rabbits,  all  yield  characteristic  glues. 

The  best  glue  is  made  from  hides  of  oxen,  which  are  soaked  in 
lime  water  until  fatty  or  partly  decayed  matter  is  eaten  out  and  only 
the  glue  is  left.  The  product  is  cleaned,  boiled  down  and  dried. 

The  best  and  clearest  bone  glues  are  obtained  by  leaching  the 
bones  with  dilute  acid  which  dissolves  out  the  lime  salts  and  leaves 
the  gelatinous  matters.  Such  leached  bone  is  sold  as  a  glue  stock, 
under  the  name  of  "osseine."  This  material  together  with  hides, 
sinews,  etc.,  has  the  gelatin  or  glue  extracted  by  boiling  again  and 
again,  just  as  soup  stock  might  be  boiled  several  times.  Each  extrac- 
tion is  called  a  "run."  Sometimes  as  many  as  ten  or  fifteen  runs 
are  taken  from  the  same  kettle  of  stock,  and  each  may  be  finished 
alone  or  mixed  with  other  runs  from  other  stock,  resulting  in  a 
great  variety  of  commercial  glues. 


WOOD    FASTENINGS.  129 


Manufacturers  use  many  tests  *  for  glue,  such  as  the  viscosity  or 
running  test,  the  odor,  the  presence  of  grease  or  of  foam,  rate  of 
set,  the  melting-point,  keeping  properties,  jelly  strength  (tested  be- 
tween the  finger  tips),  water  absorption  (some  glues  absorb  only 
once  their  weight,  others  ten  or  twelve  times),  and  binding  or  ad- 
hesive tests.  This  latter  varies  so  much  with  different  materials  thai, 
what  may  be  good  glue  for  one  material  is  poor  for  another. 

Putting  all  these  things  together,  glues  are  classified  from  grade 
\  10  to  160,  10  being  the  poorest.  The  higher  standards  from  60  and 
upwards  are  neutral  hide  glues,  clear,  clean,  free  from  odor,  foam,  and 
grease.  The  lower  standards  are  chiefly  bone  glues,  used  for  sizing 
straw  hats,  etc.  They  are  rigid  as  compared  with  the  flexibility  of 
hide  glues.  For  wood  joints  the  grade  should  be  70  or  over.  For 
leather,  nothing  less  than  100  should  be  used,  and  special  cements 
are  better  still. 

The  best  glue  is  transparent,  hard  in  the  cake,  free  from  spots, 
of  an  amber  color,  and  has  little  or  no  smell.  A  good  practical  test 
for  glue  is  to  soak  it  in  water  till  it  swells  and  becomes  jelly-like. 
The  more  it  swells  without  dissolving  the  better  the  quality.  Poor 
glue  dissolves.  Glue  is  sometimes  bleached,  becoming  brownish  white 
in  color,  but  it  is  somewhat  weakened  thereby. 

Fish  glue  is  made  from  the  scales  and  muscular  tissue  of  fish. 
Isinglass  is  a  sort  of  glue  made  from  the  viscera  and  air  bladder  of 
certain  fish,  as  cod  and  sturgeon. 

Liquid  glue  may  be  made  either  from  animal  or  fish  glue.  The 
LePage  liquid  glue  is  made  in  Gloucester,  Mass.,  one  of  the  greatest 
fish  markets  in  the  country.  Liquid  glue  is  very  convenient  because 
always  ready,  but  is  not  so  strong  as  hot  glue,  and  has  an  offensive 
odor.  Liquid  glues  are  also  made  by  rendering  ordinary  glue  non- 
gelatinizing,  which  can  be  done  by  several  means;  as,  for  instance, 
by  the  addition  of  oxalic,  nitric,  or  hydrochloric  acid  to  the  glue  so- 
lution. 

To  prepare  hot  glue,  break  it  into  small  pieces,  soak  it  in  enough 
cold  water  to  cover  it  well,  until  it  is  soft,  say  twelve  hours,  and 
heat  in  a  glue-pot  or  double  boiler,  Fig.  243,  p.  148.  The  fresher 
the  glue  is,  the  better,  as  too  many  heatings  weaken  it.  When  used 
it  should  be  thin  enough  to  drip  from  the  brush  in  a  thin  stream, 
so  that  it  will  fill  the  pores  of  the  wood  and  so  get  a  grip.  Two  sur- 
faces to  be  glued  together  should  be  as  close  as  possible,  not  separated 


130  HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 

by  a  mass  of  glue.  It  is  essential  that  the  glue  be  hot  and  the  wood 
warm,  so  that  the  glue  may  remain  as  liquid  as  possible  until  the 
surfaces  are  forced  together.  Glue  holds  best  on  side  grain.  End 
grain  can  be  made  to  stick  only  by  sizing  with  thin  glue  to  stop  the 
pores.  Pieces  thus  sized  and  dried  can  be  glued  in  the  ordinary 
way,  but  such  joints  are  seldom  good.  Surfaces  of  hard  wood  that 
are  to  be  glued  should  first  be  scratched  with  a  scratch-plane,  Fig. 
Ill,  p.  79. 

To  make  waterproof  glue,  add  one  part  of  potassium  bichromate 
to  fifty  parts  of  glue.  It  will  harden  when  exposed  to  the  air  and 
light  and  be  an  insoluble  liquid.8 

General  directions  -for  gluing?  Before  applying  glue  to  the  parts 
to  be  fastened  together,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  assemble  them  tempo- 
rarily without  glue,  to  see  that  all  the  parts  fit.  When  it  is 
desirable  that  a  certain  part,  as  the  panel,  in  panel  construction, 
should  not  be  glued  in  place,  it  is  a  wise  precaution  to  apply  wax, 
soap,  or  oil  to  its  edges  before  insertion.  Since  hot  glue  sets  quickly, 
it  is  necessary  after  the  glue  is  applied  to  get  the  parts  together  as 
soon  as  possible.  One  must  learn  to  work  fast  but  to  keep  cool.  To 
expedite  matters,  everything  should  be  quite  ready  before  the  process 
is  begun,  clamps,  protecting  blocks  of  wood,  paper  to  protect  the 
blocks  from  sticking  to  the  wood,  braces  to  straighten  angles,  mallet, 
try-square,  and  all  other  appliances  likely  to  be  required. 

Whenever  it  is  possible  to  break  up  the  process  into  steps,  each 
step  can  be  taken  with  more  deliberation.  For  example,  in  assem- 
bling framed  pieces  that  are  doweled,  it  is  well  to  glue  the  dowels 
into  one  set  of  holes  beforehand,  making  tenons  of  them,  as  it  were. 
Time  is  thus  saved  for  the  final  assembling  when  haste  is  imperative. 
The  superfluous  glue  around  the  dowels  should  be  carefully  wiped  off. 

Likewise  in  gluing  up  framed  pieces,  sections  may  be  put  together 
separately;  as,  the  ends  of  a  table,  and  when  they  are  dry  then  the 
whole  may  be  assembled.  When  the  pieces  are  together  the  joints 
should  be  tested  to  see  that  they  are  true,  and  that  there  are  no 
twists. 

A  good  way  to  insure  squareness,  is  to  insert  a  diagonal  brace  on 
the  inside,  corner  to  corner,  as  in  Fig.  294,  p.  195.  Such  a  brace 


•For  recipes  for  this  and  other  glues,  see  Woodcraft,  May  '07,  p.  49. 
9  For  special  directions,  for  particular  joints,  see  under  the  various  joints 
VII.) 


WOOD   FASTENINGS. 


131 


lould  be  provided  when  the  trial  assembly  is  made.  Another  good 
way  to  insure  squareness  is  to  pass  a  rope  around  two  diagonally  op- 
posite posts,  and  then  by  twisting  the  rope,  to  draw  these  corners 
toward  each  other  until  the  frame  is  square. 

The  superfluous  glue  may  be  wiped  off  at  once  with  a  warm  damp 
cloth,  but  not  with  enough  water  to  wet  the  wood.  Or  by  waiting  a 
few  minutes  until  the  glue  thickens,  much  of  it  can  readily  be  peeled 
off  with  an  edge  tool.  Either  of  these  ways  makes  the  cleaning  easier 
than  to  let  the  superfluous  glue  harden. 

The  work  when  glued  should  remain  at  least  six  hours  in  the 
clamps  to  harden. 

HINGES 

Hinges,  Fig.  233,  are  made  in  several  forms.  The  most  common 
are  the  butt-hinge  or  butt,  the  two  leaves  of  which  are  rectangular,  as 
in  a  door-hinge;  the  strap-hinge,  the  leaves  of  which  are  long  and 
strap-shaped;  the  Tee-hinge,  one  leaf  of  which  is  a  butt,  and  the 
other  strap-shaped;  the  chest-hinge,  one  leaf  of  which  is  bent  at  a 
right  angle,  used  for  chest  covers;  the  table-hinge  used  for  folding 
table  tops  with  a  rule  joint;  the  piano-hinge,  as  long  as  the  joint; 
the  blank  hinge  or  screen-hinge  which  opens  both  ways;  the  stop- 
hinge,  which  opens  only  90° ;  and  the  "hook-and-eye"  or  "gate" 
hinge. 


© 

© 

- 

© 
© 

Fig.  233.     a.  Butt-hinge,      b.  Tee-hinge,     c    Chest  hinge,     d.  Table-hinge,    e.  Blan 

or  Screen-hinge. 

The  knuckle  of  the  hinge  is  the  cylindrical  part  that  connects  the 
two  leaves,  Fig.  234.  The  "acorn"  is  the  head  of  the  "pintle"  or 
pin  that  passes  thru  the  knuckle.  Sizes  of  butts  are  indicated  in 
inches  for  length,  and  as  "narrow,"  "middle,"  "broad"  and  "desk" 
for  width.  The  pin  may  be  either  riveted  into  the  knuckle  as  in 
box-hinges  or  removable  as  in  door-butts.  Sometimes,  as  in  blind- 


132 


HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 


hinges,  the  pintle  is  fastened  into  one  knuckle,  but  turns  freely  in 

the  other. 

A  butt-hinge  may  be  set  in  one  of  three  positions,  Fig.  235:  (1) 

Where  it  is  desired  to  have  the  hinge  open  as  wide  as  possible,  as  in  a 

door.     Here  the  knuckle  is  set  well  out  from  the  wood.     (2)  Where 

it  is  desired  to  have  the  hinged  portion 
open  flat  and  no  more.  Here  the  cen- 
ter of  the  pin  is  in  line  with  the  out- 
side surface  of  the  wood.  This  is  less 
likely  to  rack  the  hinge  than  the  other 
two  positions.  (3)  Where  it  is  desired 
to  have  the  knuckle  project  as  little  as 
possible. 

HINGING 


Fig.   234.     Parts  of  a  butt-hing-e. 

1.1.     Leaves.        2.2.2.      Knuckle. 

3.  Pintle.     4.  Acorn. 


In  setting  the  hinges  of  a  box  cover, 
first  see  that  the  cover  fits  the  box  ex- 
actly all  the  way  around. 

In  the  case  of  a  door,  see  that  it  fits 
its  frame,  evenly  all  the  way  around, 

but  with  a  little  play.     To  insure  a  tighter  fit  at  the  swinging  edge 
this  edge  should  be  slightly  beveled  inwards. 

In  attaching  a  butt-hinge,  the  essential  thing  is  to  sink  the  hinge 
into  the  wood,  exactly  the  thickness  of  the  knuckle.  The  gains  may 
be  cut  in  one  or  both  of  the  pieces  to  be  hinged  together. 

With  these  matters  determined  proceed  as  follows :  In  the  case 
of  a  box  cover,  the  hinges  should  be  set  about  as  far  from  the  ends 
of  the  box  as  the  hinge  is  long. 

In  the  case  of  an  upright  door,  locate  the  hinges  respectively 
above  and  below  the  lower  and  upper  rails  of  the  door.  Mark  with 
the  knife  on  the  edge  of  the  door  the  length  of  the  hinge,  and  square 
across  approximately  the  width  of  the  gain  to  receive  it.  Do  this  for 
both  hinges.  Between  these  lines  gage  the  proper  width  of  the  gains. 
Set  another  gage  to  one-half  the  thickness  of  the  knuckle  and  gage 
on  the  door  face  the  depth  of  the  gains.  Chisel  out  the  gains,  set 
the  hinges  in  place,  bore  the  holes,  and  drive  the  screws.  Place  the 
door  in  position  again  to  test  the  fit.  If  all  is  well,  mark  the  position 
of  the  hinges  on  the  frame,  gage  and  cut  the  gains,  and  fasten  in  the 
hinges.  Where  the  hinge  is  gained  its  full  thickness  into  the  door, 


WOOD    FASTENINGS. 


133 


no  gam,  of  course,  is  cut  in  the  \£rame.      If  the  hinges  are  set  too 
shallow,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  unscrew  one  leaf  of  each  and  cut  a 
little  deeper.     If  they  are  set  too  deep  the  screws  may  be  loosened 
and  a  piece  of  paper  or  a  shav- 
ing  inserted   underneath   along 
the  outer  arris  of  the  gain. 

LOCKS 

The  chief  parts  of  a  lock 
are:  the  bolt,  its  essential  fea- 
ture, the  selvage,  the  plate 
which  appears  at  the  edge  of 
the  door  or  drawer,  the  box, 
which  contains  the  mechanism, 
including  the  tumbler,  ward, 
spring,  etc.,  the  key-pin,  into 
or  around  which  the  key  is  in- 
serted, the  strike,  the  plate  at- 
tached opposite  the  selvage, 
(often  left  out  as  in  drawer- 
locks,  but  essential  in  hook-bolt 
locks,  and  self -locking  locks,) 
and  the  escutcheon,  the  plate 
around  the  keyhole. 

Locks  may  be  classified:  (1)  According  to  their  uses,  of  which 
there  are  two  types,  (a),  Fig.  236,  For  drawers,  cupboards,  tills, 
wardrobes,  and  doors.  In  these  the  bolt  simply  projects  at  right 
angles  to  the  selvage  into  the  strike,  and  resists  pressure  sidewise  of 
the  lock,  (b),  Fig.  237,  For  desks,  roll-top  desks,  chests,  boxes  and 

sliding  doors.  In  these,  the  bolt  in- 
cludes a  hook  device  of  some  kind  to 
resist  pressure  perpendicular  to  the 
selvage.  In  some  locks,  the  hook  or 
hooks  project  sidewise  from  the  bolt,  in 
others  the  bolt  engages  in  hooks  or 
eyes  attached  to  the  strike. 

(2)  According  to  the  method  of  ap- 
plication, as  rim  locks,  which  are  fas- 


235.    Three  Positions  of  Hinges. 


Fig.  236.     Rim-lock,  for  Drawer. 
1.    Bolt.       2.    Selvage.       3.    Box. 
4.  Key-pin. 


134 


HANDWORK    IN     WOOD. 


tened  on  the  surface,  and  mortise  locks  which  are  mortised  into  the 
edge  of  a  door  or  drawer  or  box. 

INSERTING    LOCKS 

To  insert  a  rim-lock,  measure  the  distance  from  the  selvage  to  the 
key-pin,  locate  this  as  the  center  of  the  keyhole,  and  bore  the  hole.    If 

the  lock  has  a  selvage,  gain  out  the  edge 
of  the  door  or  drawer  to  receive  it.  If 
the  lock  box  has  to  be  gained  in,  do 
that  next,  taking  care  that  the  bolt  has 
room  to  slide.  Cut  the  keyhole  to  the 
proper  shape  with  a  keyhole-saw  or 
small  chisel.  Fasten  the  lock  in  place, 
and  if  there  is  a  strike  or  face-plate, 
mark  its  place  and  mortise  it  in. 

To  insert  a  mortise-lock,  locate  and 
bore    the   keyhole,   mortise   in   the   box 

and  the  selvage,  finish  the  keyhole,  fasten  in  the  lock,  add  the  es- 
cutcheon, locate  and  mortise  in  the  strike,  and  screw  it  in  place. 


V.. 


Fig-.  237.    Mortise-lock,  for  Box. 


WOOD   FASTENINGS. 


135 


WOOD   FASTENINGS 


REFERENCES : 


Hammacher  &  Schlemmer. 
Catalog  No.  151. 

Nails. 

Goss,  p.  153. 

Purfield,  Wood  Craft,  5:    181. 
Park,  pp.  129-135. 

Tacks. 

Wheeler,  pp.  429-433. 
Sickels,  p.  70. 

Screws. 

Goss,  p.  155. 
Wheeler,  p.  476. 
Barter,  p.  86. 

Dowels. 

Goss,  p.  153. 
Wheeler,  p.  374. 

Wedges. 

Goss,  p.  151. 

Glue. 

Goss,  p.  156. 

Rivington,  III,  p.  432. 

Barter,  p.  82. 

Standage,  Wood  Craft,  7:  48. 

Park,  pp.  141-146. 

Hinges. 

Sickels,  p.  118. 


Griffith,  pp.  75-78. 
Wood  Craft,  5:   103. 
Wheeler,  pp  428-433. 


Goss,  p.  155. 
Barter,  pp.  84-86. 

Griffith,  pp.  78-80. 
Park,  pp.  136-140. 


Sickels,  p.  104. 
Griffith,  p.  92. 


Sickels,  p.  106. 
Wheeler,  pp.  391-396. 
Alexander,  Wood  Craft,  5:    168. 
Griffith,  pp.  80-83. 


Wheeler,  p.  402. 


For  general  bibliography  see  p.  4. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
EQUIPMENT  AND  CAEE  OF  THE  SHOP. 

Tool  equipment.  The  choice  of  tools  in  any  particular  shop  best 
comes  out  of  long  experience.  Some  teachers  prefer  to  emphasize 
certain  processes  or  methods,  others  lay  stress  on  different  ones.  The 
following  tentative  list  is  suggested  for  a  full  elementary  school  equip- 
ment for  twenty-four  students.  One  bench  and  its  tools  may  be 
added  for  the  teacher. 

The  prices  given  are  quoted  from  Discount  Sheet  No.  1  for  Cata- 
logue of  Tools,  No.  355  issued  by  Hammacher,  Schlemmer  &  Co., 
Fourth  Avenue  and  13th  Street,  New  York  City,  dated  1908,  and 
are  correct  at  the  present  date  (1911).  Aggregate  orders,  however, 
are  always  subject  to  special  concessions,  and  it  is  suggested  that  be- 
fore ordering  the  purchaser  submit  a  list  of  specifications  for  which 
special  figures  will  be  quoted. 

There  are  good  benches,  vises,  and  tools  of  other  makes  on  the 
market,  but  those  specified  below  are  typical  good  ones. 

Following  are  two  equipments  for  classes  of  twenty-four  pupils, 
one  severely  economical  to  cost  approximately  $400,  and  the  other 
more  elaborate  to  cost  approximately  $750. 

$400   TOOL   EQUIPMENT. 
INDIVIDUAL     TOOLS. 

24  Manual  Training  School  Benches,  H.  &  S.  "L,"  @  $8.50 $204.00 

24  Stanley,  Red-Rock  Planes,  No.  604,    @    $1.70  each 40.80 

24  Disston's  Back-Saws,  No.  4,   10",  @  93c  each 22.32 

12  Buck  Brothers'  Firmer-Chisels,  No.  2,  14",  handled  and  sharpened.  2.21 

12  Buck  Brothers'  Firmer-Chisels,  No.  2,  %",  handled  and  sharpened.  2.68 

24  Buck  Brothers'  Firmer-Chisels,  No.  2,  1",  handled  and  sharpened.  .  7.31 

24  Sloyd  Knives,  No.  7,  2V2"    6.50 

12  Hammond's  Adze-eye  Claw-Hammer,  No.   3,  7   oz 4.90 

24  Try-squares,   No.    5%,   6" 5.32 

24  Beech  Marking-Gages,  No.   64% 4.86 

136 


EQUIPMENT   AND   CARE   OF  THE   SHOP.  137 


24  Boxwood  Rules,  No.   3,   12"  long $     1.80 

12  Bench-Hooks    2.00 

12  Bench-Dusters,  No.  10   2.70 


Total   for   individual   tools $307.40 

GENERAL  TOOLS 

0  Disston's  Crosscut-Saws,  No.  9,  22",  10  points $     8.00 

6  Disston's  Rip-Saws,  No.  9,  22",  8  points 8.00 

2  Turning-Saws  in  frames,  14",  M.  F.  &  Co 1.74 

1  Dozen  Turning-Saw  Blades,  14",  H.  S.  &  Co 1.06 

2  Compass-Saws,  Disston's  No.  2,  10",   @   27c 54 

Hack-Saw   Frame,    No.    50 45 

Disston's  Dovetail-Saw,  6",  iron  back t .48 

Stanley  Miter-Box,    No.    240 8.20 

Stanley  Block-Planes,  No.    Q5y2 1.56 

Stanley    Fore-Plane,    No.    6 2.22 

Stanley  Rabbet-Plane  and  Filletster,   No.   78 1.10 

Stanley  "Bed  Rock"  Plane,  No.  605,  14" 1.98 

6  Iron   Spokeshaves,    No.   54 1.42 

1  Veneer-Scraper,  No.  80    70 

6  Each  Molding-Scrapers,  No.  2  and  No.  7 90 

1  Scraper   Steel,   Richardson's, .10 

3  Flat  Bastard  Files,  K.  &  F.,  8",  handled 45 

3  Half-Round  Files,  K.  &  F.,  8",  handled 55 

3  Rat-tail  Files,  K.  &  F.,  8",  handled 33 

4  Files,  K.  &  F.,  6",  slim  taper 36 

1  Auger-Bit-File    13 

File-Card,  No.   1 14 

Empire  Tool-Grinder    2.80 

Grindstone,  No.    11,   with   stone    15.00 

India  Oilstone,  No.  0,  in  box   95 

Soft  Arkansas  Oil   Slipstone,  No.   6 18 

Copperized  Steel  Oiler,  No.   14A,   %   pint 23 

2  Disston's  Sliding  T  Bevel,  No.   3,  6" 46 

1  Stanley  Miter-Square,  No.    16,    10" 60 

1  Sargent  Steel  Square,  No.  2 69 

3  Pairs  Starrett's  Winged  Dividers,  No.  92,  8",  @  75c 2.25 

1  Chisel,  No.  2,  %",  handled    20 

3  Buck  Brothers'  Firmer-Gouges,  No.  8,   1" 1.29 

1  Buck  Brothers'  Gouge,  No.  10,  inside  bevel,  regular  sweep,  %"...         .43 

4  Barber's  Braces,  No.   14,   6"  sweep 3.52 

1  Barber's  Ratchet-Brace,  No.  31,  12"  sweep 1.62 

5  Gimlet-Bits,  1  each  of  2/32",  3/32",  4/32",  5/32",  6/32" 40 

1  Set   Auger-Bits,   R.  Jennings'    4.46 

1  Clark's    Expansive-Bit,    small    .57 

10  - 


138  HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 

2  Screwdriver-Bits,   V2",  round  blade,  No.   10,  4" $0.32 

3  Rose  Countersinks,   No.    10,    5/8" 68 

6  Brad-Awls,  assorted  1"-1%"    30 

1  Hand-Drill,    No.    5V2    2.45 

Extra  Drills,  2  each  of  No.  107,  size,  10,  15,  20,  25,  30,  35,  40,  45, 

50,    55,    60    1.42 

6  New  Century  Screwdrivers,  4"    .96 

1  New  Century  Screwdriver,  12"    .54 

6  0.  K.   Nailsets,   assorted    42 

6  Carpenter's   Steel   Bar   Clamps,    3   ft 9.60 

12  Aldrich's  Oiled  Handscrews,  No.   16,   10" 4.79 

12  Aldrich's  Oiled  Handscrews,  No.   17^,  6" 3.42 

4  Carriage-Maker's    Clamps,    6"    1.32 

1  Automatic   Miter-Clamp    1.80 

1  Pair   Pliers,   No.   200,    5" 21 

1  Coe's    Monkey-Wrench,    10"    60 

1  Glue-Pot,   No.    3    82 

1  Parker's  Wood-working  Vise,  No.   276 8.07 

1  Gas    Stove,    99A    55 

1  Pair  End-Cutting  Nippers,  No.  154,  5" 88 

1  Pair  Compton's  Metal  Snips,  No.   12,   2" 63 

1  Glass-Cutter,  No.    10    27 

3  Flat     Varnish     Brushes,    No.    54,    iy2",    hard-rubber-bound     (for 

shellac )     96 

6  Cheap  Brushes,   1",  tin-bound    (for   stains) ,   "EE" 90 

6  Extra  Jack-Plane  Cutters    (No.  5)    1.80 

6  Enamel   Cups,    %    pint    60 

1  Maple  Yard-Stick,   No.   41    17 


Total  for  general  tools    $120.54 

Total  for  individual  tools   .  .    307. -40 


$427.94 
Discount  for  schools,  10  per  cent 42.79 


$385.15 
Lockers  for  individual  work    $150.00 


Total    $535.15 

$750    TOOL   EQUIPMENT 

INCLUDING  1  BENCH  AND  SET  OF  TOOLS  FOR  INSTRUCTOR 
AND  INDIVIDUAL  TOOLS 

25  Manual  Training  School  Benches,  Hammacher,  Schlemmer  &  Co.'s 

"J"  with  Toles'  quick-acting  Vise  on  side,  @  $20 $500.00 


EQUIPMENT   AND    CARE   OF  THE   SHOP.  139 

25  Stanley  Bed-Rock  Planes,  No.  604r  @  $1.70  each 42.50 

25  Disston's  Back-Saws,  No.  4,  10",  @  93c  each 23.25 

25  Buck  Brothers'  Firmer-Chisels,  %",  handled  and  sharpened,  @ 

$2.21  doz $  4.61 

25  Buck  Brothers'  Firmer-Chisels,  %",  handled  and  sharpened,  @ 

$2.68  doz 5.58 

25  Buck  Brothers'  Firmer-Chisels,  1",  handled  and  sharpened,  @  $3.65.  7.61 

30  Sloyd  Knives,  No.  7,  2%"  blade  (6  extra)  @  $3.25  doz 8.12 

25  Hammond's  Adze-eye  Hammers,  No.  3,  7  oz.,  @$4.90  doz 10.21 

25  Round  Hickory  Mallets,  No.  4,  @  $1.40  do'z 2.91 

25  Hardened  Blade  Try-Squares,  No.  5%,  6",  @  $2.66  doz 5.57 

25  Beech  Marking-Gages,  No.  64%,  8",  @  $2.43  doz 5.07 

25  Steel  Bench-Rules,  No.  300D,  @  $4.80  doz 10.00 

25  Maple  Bench-Hooks,  @  $2.00  doz 4.18 

25  Bench-Dusters,  No.  10,  (2)  $2.70  doz 5.63 


Total   for   individual    tools $635.24 

GENERAL  TOOLS 

6  Disston's  Crosscut-Saws,  Xo.  9,  22",  10  points $     8.00 

6  Disston's  Rip-Saws,  No.  9,  22",  8  points 8.00 

4  Turning-Saws  in  frames,   14"    3.48 

1  Doz.  Turning-Saw  Blades,   14"    1.06 

2  Compass-Saws,  Disston's  No.  2,  10",  @  27c 54 

.  1  Stanley   Miter-Box,    No.    240 8.20 

.  1  Disston's  Dovetail-Saw,   6",   iron  back 48 

-  2  Coping-Saws,    No.    110 40 

•  1  Gross    Coping-Saw    Blades,    6" 1.00 

.  6  Stanley  Block-Planes,  No.  65%    4.68 

.  1  Stanley    Fore-Plane,    No.    6 2.22 

1  Stanley  Rabbet-Plane  and  Filletster,  No.   78 1.10 

2  Stanley's  "Bed  Rock"  Jack-Planes,  No.  605 3.96 

12  Extra  Jack-Plane  Cutters    (No.   5 ) ,   2" 3.60 

1  Stanley  Beading  Rabbet  and  Matching  Plane,  No.  45 5.85 

1  Stanley   Router-Plane,    No.    71 1.37 

6  Iron   Spokeshaves,   No.   54    1.42 

6  Pattern-Makers'  Spokeshaves,  applewood,  small,     \Vz" 1-52 

2  Drawing-Knives,   White's  No.    31,   6" 1.60 

1  Stanley  Adjustable  Scraper-Plane,  No.  112,  with  toothing  cutter..  1.43 

1  Veneer-Scraper,    No.    80    70 

3  Each  Molding-Scrapers,  No.  2,  No.  7 45 

2  Dowel-Pointers,    No.    1 60 

1  Dowel-Plate    30 

1  Scraper    Steel,   Richardson's,    10 

1  Iron    Screw-Box,   French,    l£"    .  1.80 


140  HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 

•  4  Flat  Bastard  Files,  K.  &  F.,  8",  handled $0.60 

.  4  Half-Round  Files,  K.  &  F.,  8",  handled    72 

4  Rat-tail  Files,  K.  &  F.,  8",  handled    44 

•  4  Files,   6",  slim  taper    36 

>  2  Auger-Bit-Files    25 

1  File-Card,    No.    1     14 

1  Empire  Tool-Grinder    2.80 

1  Grindstone,  No.   11,    (iron  frame  and  stone) 15.00 

2  India  Oilstones,  No.  0    (medium) ,  in  iron  box 1.90 

1  Soft  Arkansas  Oil  Slipstone,  No.  6 18 

2  Copperized   Steel  Oilers,    14A,   %   pint 46 

6  Disston's  Sliding  T  Bevels,  No.  3,  6" 1.38 

1  Stanley  Miter-Square,  No.    16,   10"    60 

1  Sargent    Steel    Square,    No.    2 60 

•  6  Pairs  Dividers,  Starrett's  winged,  No.  92,  8" 4.50 

3  Scratch-Awls,    Collier's,    4"    33 

1  Pair  Trammel-Points,  No.    1    .74 

•  1   Try-Square,  No.   5%,    12",   hardened   blade    52 

,  1  Mortise-Gage,    No.    77    .55 

1  Cutting-Gage,    No.    70    .17 

3  Each   Firmer-Chisels,   Buck  Bros.'   No.   2,  handled  and   sharpened; 

1/16",  1/8",  3/16",  3/8",  3/4",  1  1/2"    4.42 

3  Each    outside-Bevel    Gouges,    Buck    Bros.'    Firmer,    No.    8    handled 

and  sharpened ;     V±",   %",   %",   1" 3.55 

3  Addis'  Carving-Tools,  round  maple  handles,  No.   11,  5/32" 96 

3  Addis'  Veining-Tools,  round  maple  handles,  No.   II,   1/16" 96 

3  Inside-Bevel   Gouges,  regular   sweep,  No.    10,    %" 1.29 

i  6  Barber's  Nickel-Plated  Braces,  No.   14,   6"   sweep 5.25 

.  1   Barber's   Ratchet-Brace,   No.    31,    12"    sweep 1.62 

•  3  Each  German  Gimlet-Bits,  2/32",  3/32",  4/32",  5/32",  6/32"....        1.00 
,  3  Each   Russell   Jennings'   Auger-Bits,    3/16",   4/16",   5/16".    6/16", 

7/16",    8/16"    4.18 

2  Each     Russell     Jennings'     Auger-Bits,     genuine,     10/16",     11/16", 

12/16",    13/16",    14/16",    15/16",    16/16" 8.19 

1  Each   Foerstner's  Auger-Bits,    14 ",   3/8",   W 1-79 

•  1  Clark's   Expansive-Bit,    %"    to    \Vz" 57 

3  Buck  Bros.'  Rose  Countersinks,  No.  10,  $/$" .78 

1  Washer-Cutter,    No.    350. 65 

1  Plug-Cutter,    y%"    32 

2  Screwdriver-Bits,   Vz",   round  blade,  4"  long .32 

4  Each  Brad- Awls,  handled,   1",   1^",    1%" 60 

6  New   Century   Screwdrivers,   4"    .96 

•  1   New    Century    Screwdriver.    12"    .54 

•  1  New  Century   Screwdriver,    8"    36 

1  New  Century   Screwdriver,   3^",   slim    .16 

1  Dowel-Plate,    cast    steel  .30 


EQUIPMENT   AND   CARE   OF  THE   SHOP.  141 

^  6  O.  K.  Nailsets,  assorted  1/16",  3/32",  1/8"    .42 

6  Carpenter  Steel  Bar   Clamps,   3  ft 9.60 

.    2  Carpenter  Steel  Bar  Clamps,  5  ft 3.60 

.  12  Aldrich's  Oiled  Handscrews,  No.  16,  10"   4.79 

«   12  Aldrich's  Oiled  Handscrews,  No.   17%,  6"    3.42 

4  Carriage-Makers'   Clamps,   6"    , . . . .       1.32 

1  Automatic   Miter-Clamp    1.80 

2  Doz.  Acme  Pinch-Dogs,    %"    , 30 

,     1  Glue-Pot,   No.   3    82 

1  Gas   Stove,   No.   99A    , 55 

•    1  Coe's   Monkey-Wrench,    10"    60 

1  Glass-Cutter,  No.   10    27 

»      6  Flat     Varnish     Brushes    No.    54,    1%",    hard-rubber-bound     (for 

shellac) 1.58 

,    12  Cheap  Brushes,  tin-bound,    (for  stains),   EE,   1"    1.80 

.      6  Enameled   Cups,    %    pint    60 

1  Maple  Yard-Stick,  No.  41    17 

1  Pair  Blackboard  Compasses  or  Dividers    1.50 

1  Blackboard  Triangle,  45°    50 

1  Blackboard   Triangle,   30°x60° 50 


Total   for  general  tools 


METAL    WORKING    TOOLS 

1  Bench,  No.  L,  without  vises    $     8.00 

1  Parker's   Wood- working   Vise,    No.    276 8.07 

1  Hand- Vise,   No.    1230%,   4" 54 

1  Hay-Budden   Anvil,    10   Ibs    3.07 

1  Riveting-Hammer,  Atha,  4  oz 32 

Rivet-Set,    No.    4    27 

Cold-Chisel,  3/8"  cutting  edge    11 

Cold-Chisel,  y%'  cutting  edge    .15 

Cape-Chisel,  y%"  cutting  edge .13 

Round-nosed    Chisel,    %"     13 

Pair  End-Cutting  Nippers,  No.  154,  5" 88 

Pair  Compton's  Metal   Snips,   No.    12,   2" 63 

Pair  Flat-nose  Pliers,  No.    1806%,  5" 58 

Die-Holder,   No.    11    32 

Die,   ^"x^4",    6/32"    27 

Hand-Drill,   No.    5%    2.45 

Extra  Drills,  Morse's  No.  107,  2  each,  Nos.  10,    15,  20,  25,  30,  35, 

40,  45,  50,  55,  60 1.42 

1  Metal   Countersink,   No.    15,   5/8"    , 18 

1  Hack-Saw   Frame,  No.   50    45 

6  Hack-Saw  Blades,  8",  H.  S.  &  Co , 25 

1  Melting   Ladle,    3"    19 

1  Soldering  Copper,    1   Ib 


HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 

Mill  Bastard  File,  8",  1   safe  edge,  handled -, 

Mill  Smooth  File,  6",  handled    

Square  Bastard  File,   8",  handled    

Half-round  Bastard  File,  8",  handled   

Slim  Taper  Saw-File,  6",  handled    

Round  Bastard    File,   4",   handled    J       .35 

1  Atha    Machinist's    Hammer,    Ball-peen,    6    oz 38 

Total   for  metal  working  tools    $29.95 

Glue  and   Stain  Bench    $  15.00 

Lockers  for  individual  work  for  360  pupils    360.00 

Nail    and    Screw   Cabinet    35.00 


$410.00 

Individual   Tools    $635.24 

General    Tools    .    196.96 


$832.20 
Discount  for   schools,    10   per  cent 83.22 


$748.98 
Cabinets,   lockers,    etc .   410.00 


Total $1158.98 

THE   CARE   OF   THE   WOODWORKING    SHOP 

Tlie  general  arrangement  of  tlie  room.  The  important  factors 
are  the  source  or  sources  of  light,  and  the  lines  of  travel.  The  com- 
mon arrangement  of  benches  where  two  sides  of  the  room  are  lighted, 
is  shown  in  a,  Fig.  238.  By  this  arrangement,  as  each  worker  faces 
his  bench,  he  also  faces  one  set  of  windows  and  has  another  set  of 
windows  at  his  left.  The  advantage  of  this  arrangement  is  that  it  is 
easy  to  test  one's  work  with  the  try-square  by  lifting  it  up  to  the 
light.  Another  arrangement,  snown  in  l>,  Fig.  238,  has  this  advan- 
tage, that  there  are  no  shadows  on  the  work  when  it  is  lying  on  the 
bench  and  the  worker  is  holding  his  rule  or  try-square  on  it  with 
his  left  hand.  When  all  the  windows  are  on  one  side  of  the  room 
the  latter  is  the  more  advantageous  arrangement. 

In  determining  the  position  of  the  benches,  especially  with  refer- 
ence to  their  distance  from  each  other,  thought  should  be  given  to 
the  general  lines  of  travel,  from  the  individual  benches  to  the  general 
tool-rack,  to  the  finishing-table,  to  the  lockers,  etc.  Even  if  all  the 
aisles  cannot  be  wide  enough  both  for  passage  and  for  work,  one 
wider  one  thru  the  center  of  the  room  mav  solve  the  difficulty.  Where 


EQUIPMENT   AND    CARE   OF  THE   SHOP. 


143 


rooms  are  crowded,  space  may  be  economized  by  placing  the  benches 
in  pairs,  back  to  back,  c  and  df  Fig.  238.  In  any  case,  room  should 
I  always  be  reserved  for  a  tier  of  demonstration  seats,  facing  the  teach- 
er's bench,  for  the  sake  of  making  it  easy  for  the  pupils  to  listen  and 
to  think.* 

The  Tools.    Every  shop  soon  has  its  own  traditions  as  to  the  ar- 
rangement of  tools,  but  there  are  two  principles  always  worth  observ- 


D  n  a 

o  o  a 

1  0  a 

i  a 


DQ 

DD  DQ 

m  DQ 

m 


Fig-.  238.    Four  Different  Arrangements  of  Benches  in  a  Shop. 

ing.  (1)  It  is  an  old  saying  that  there  should  be  "a  place  for  every- 
thing and  everything  in  its  place."  This  is  eminently  true  of  a  well- 
ordered  woodworking  shop,  and  there  is  another  principle  just  as  im- 
portant. (2)  Things  of  the  same  sort  should  be  arranged  together,  and 
arranged  by  sizes,  whether  they  be  general  tools  or  individual  tools. 
In  arranging  the  rack  for  general  tools,  a  few  suggestions  are  offered. 
In  the  first  place,  arrange  them  so  that  there  will  be  no  danger  of 
cutting  one's  fingers  on  one  tool  when  attempting  to  take  down  an- 


*A  steep  tier,  say  three  rows  having  20"  rise  and  30"  tread,  is  excellent. 


144 


HANDWORK   IX   WOOD. 


other.  Where  the  rack  must  needs  be  high,  all  the  tools  can  be 
brought  within  reach,  by  placing  long  tools,  like  files,  screwdrivers, 
etc.,  at  the  top.  Such  an  arrangement  is  shown  in  Fig.  239. 

As  to  the  individual  benches,  those  without  high  backs  are  to  be 
preferred,  not  only  because  of  their  convenience  when  it  is  desired 


Fig-.  239.     General  Tool- rack  in  a  School  Shop. 


to  work  on  large  pieces,  like  table  tops,  and  because  the  backs  do  not 
interfere  with  the  light,  but  because  it  is  easier  for  the  teacher  to 
look  over  the  room  to  see  that  everything  is  in  order.  If  the  equip- 
ment is  kept  complete,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  glance  over  all  the 
benches  and  the  general  rack  to  see  that  everything  is  in  place. 

In  general,  there  are  two  methods  of  keeping  guard  over  tools,  the 
open  and  the  closed.  In  the  open  method,  everything  is  kept  in  sight 
so  that  empty  places  can  be  discovered  readily.  This  method  is  a 
convenient  one,  and,  besides,  the  tools  are  always  easily  accessible. 
In  the  closed  method,  the  tools  are  kept  in  drawers  and  cases  where 
they  can  be  locked  up.  This  method  is  suitable  where  pupils  are 


EQUIPMENT   AND    CARE   OF  THE   SHOP. 


145 


equipped  with  individual  sets  of  ^cutting  tools.  In  such  a  case,  the 
common  tools  for  each  bench  are  kept  in  a  common  drawer  and  in- 
dividual pupils'  tools  in  separate  drawers.  This  method  has  the  dis- 
advantage that  things  are  out  of  sight,  and  if  they  disappear  their 
loss  may  not  be  discovered  immediately.  On  the  other  hand,  where 


Fig.  240.     Nail  and  Screw  Cabinet. 

the  drawers  and  cases  are  kept  carefully  locked,  the  danger  of  loss  is 
reduced  almost  to  a  minimum.  Sometimes  a  combination  of  both 
methods  is  tried,  the  tools  being  kept  in  unlocked  drawers.  This 
method  furnishes  the  greatest  difficulty  in  keeping  tools  from  disap- 
pearing. 

Even  when  tools  are  well  arranged,  one  of  the  most  serious  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  shop  order,  is  to  keep  tools  in  their  places.  Pu- 
pils who  are  in  a  hurry,  slip  in  the  too^  wherever  they  will  fit,  not 
where  they  belong.  Labels  at  the  places  of  the  different  sets  may 


146 


HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 


help  somewhat;  a  more  efficient  method  is  to  paste  or  paint  the 
form  of  each  tool  on  the  wall  or  board  against  which  it  hangs.  Pu- 
pils will  see  that,  when  they  will  not  stop  to  read  a  label. 

In  spite  of  all  precautions,  some  tools  will  disappear.     A  plan  to 
cover  the  cost  of  these,  which  works  well  in  some  schools,  is  to  require 


—/a— 


Illl, 


4>0 

*0 


Fig.  241.    An  Inexpensive  Locker  for  Unfinished  Work. 

a  deposit  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  to  cover  these  losses.  Then  at 
the  end  of  the  year,  after  deducting  the  cost  of  losses,  the  balance  is 
returned  pro  rata. 

There  is  diversity  of  practice  in  the  distribution  of  tools  on  the 
general  case  and  on  the  individual  benches.     Some  tools,  like   the 


EQUIPMENT   AND    CARE   OF  THE   SHOP. 


147 


plane  and  chisel,  and  try-square, -are  so  frequently  in  use  that  each 
worker  must  have  one  at  hand.  As  to  others,  the  demand  must  de- 
termine the  supply.  One  other  consideration  may  be  expressed  by 
the  principle  that  those  tools,  the  use  of  which  is  to  be  encouraged, 
should  be  kept  as  accessible  as  possible,  and  those  whose  use  is  to  be 
discouraged,  should  be  kept  remote.  Some  tools,  like  files,  it  may  be 
well  to  keep  in  a  separate  locker  to  be  had  only  when  asked  for. 


;t 


$ 

i 
| 

I 


/6 


5'd' 


<r 


Fig-.  242.     A  More  Expensive  Locker  for  Unfinished  Work. 

A  cabinet  of  drawers,  such  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  240,  for  holding 
nails,  screws,  and  other  fastenings,  is  both  a  convenience  and  a  ma- 
terial aid  in  preserving  the  order  of  the  shop. 

As  for  the  care  of  tools  during  vacation,  they  should  be  smeared 
with  vaseline,  which  is  cheap,  and  put  away  out  of  the  dampness. 
The  planes  should  be  taken  apart  and  each  part  smeared.  To  clean 
them  again  for  use,  then  becomes  an  easy  matter.  The  best  method 
of  removing  rust  and  tarnish  is  to  polish  the  tools  on  a  power  buffing 
wheel  on  which  has  been  rubbed  some  tripoli.  They  may  then  be 
polished  on  a  clean  buffer  without  tripoli. 

The  Lockers.  In  order  to  maintain  good  order  in  the  shop,  an 
almost  indispensable  part  of  the  equipment  is  a  set  of  lockers  for  hold- 


148 


HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 


ing  the  unfinished  work  of  pupils.  An  inexpensive  outfit  may  consist 
simply  of  sets  of  shelves,  say  5"  apart,  12"  deep,  and  18"  long,  Fig.  241. 
Ordinary  spring-roller  curtains  may  be  hung  in  front  of  each  set  of 
shelves  to  conceal  and  protect  the  contents.  Such  a  case  should  cost 
at  the  rate  of  about  40c  for  each  compartment.  A  more  substantial 
and  more  convenient  case,  shown  in  Fig.  242,  consists  of  compart- 


Fig.  243.     Gluing  and  Staining-  Bench  Covered  with  Zinc. 


rncnts  each  9y2"  high,  6"  wide,  and  18"  deep.  These  proportions 
may  be  changed  to  suit  varying  conditions.  In  front  of  each  tier 
of  12  compartments  is  a  flap  door  opening  downward.  Such  a  case 
built  of  yellow  pine  (paneled)  may  cost  at  the  rate  of  $1.00  per 
compartment.  There  should,  of  course,  be  a  separate  compartment  tor 
en cli  pupil  using  the  shop. 


EQUIPMENT   AND    CARE   OF  THE   SHOP. 


149 


Fig-.  244.     Shellac  Utensils. 


Where   possible,   there  should  .also  be   a   special   table   for   stain- 

ng  and  gluing.  Where  strict  economy  must  be  practiced,  a 
ffood  sized  kitchen  table  covered  with  oilcloth  answers  every  purpose. 
A  better  equipment  would  include  a  well-built  bench,  such  as  that 
shown  in  Fig.  243,  the  top  and  back  of  which  are  covered  with  zinc. 
Wrhere  no  staining-table  is  possible,  temporary  coverings  of  oil- 
cloth may  be  provided  to  lay  over  any  bench  which  is  convenient  for 

he  purpose. 

Care  of  brushes  and  materials  used  in  finishing  wood.  Shellac- 
should  be  kept  in  glass  or  pot- 

ery   or   aluminum   receptacles 

>ut  not  in  any  metal  like  tin, 

vhich  darkens  it.  A  good 
plan  is  to  have  a  bottle  for 
fresh,  untouched  shellac,  a 
wide-mouthed  jar  for  that 
which  has  been  diluted  and 
used,  and  an  enameled  cup  for 
use.  There  should  also  be  a 
special  brush,  Fig.  244.  At 
the  time  of  using,  first  see 

that  the  brush  is  soft  and  pliable.  If  it  is  stiff,  it  can  be  soaked 
quickly  and  softened  in  a  little  alcohol  in  the  cup.  This  alcohol  may 
then  be  poured  into  the  jar  and  mixed  in  by  shaking.  Then  pour  out 
a  little  from  the  jar  into  the  cup,  and  if  it  is  too  thin,  thicken  with 
some  fresh  shellac.  After  using,  pour  back  the  residue  into  the  jar, 
carefully  wiping  the  brush  on  the  edge  of  the  jar;  and  if  it  is  not 
to  be  used  again  for  some  time,  rinse  it  in  a  little  alcohol,  which  may 
also  be  poured  into  the  jar,  which  should  then  he  covered.  What 
little  shellac  remains  in  the  brush  and  cup  will  do  no  harm  and  tin- 
brush  may  be  left  standing  in  the  cup  until  required.  The  import- 
ant things  are  to  keep  the  shellac  cup  and  brush  for  shellac  only, 
(indeed,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  label  them  "SHELLAC  ONLY,")  and 
to  keep  the  shellac  covered  so  that  the  alcohol  in  it  will  not  evapo- 
rate. In  a  pattern-making  shop,  where  the  shellac  cup  is  to  be  fre- 
quently used,  it  is  well  to  have  cups  with  covers  thru  which  the 
brushes  hang,  like  the  brush  in  a  mucilage  jar. 

Varnish  brushes  need  to  be  cleaned  thoroly  after  each  using.  If 
they  get  dry  they  become  too  hard  to  be  c'eaned  without  great  dif- 
ficultv. 


150 


HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 


Brushes  for  water  stains  are  easily  taken  care  of  by  washing  with 
water  and  then  laying  them  flat  in  a  box.  Cups  in  which  the  watei 
stains  have  been  used  can  also  be  easily  rinsed  with  water. 

Brushes  for  oil  stains  are 
most  easily  kept  in  good  con- 
dition, by  being  hung  in  a 
brush-keeper,  Fig.  245,  (sold 
by  Devoe  &  Keynolds,  101 
Fulton  St.,  K  Y.  C.,)  partly 
filled  with  turpentine.  The 
same  brushes  may  also  be  used 
for  fillers. 

Oil  stains  should  be  poured 
back  into  their  respective  bot- 
tles, and  the  cups  wiped  out 
with  cotton  waste.  When  they 
get  in  bad  condition,  they  can 
be  cleaned  readily  after  a  pre- 
liminary soaking  in  a  strong 
solution  of  potash.  The  same 
treatment  may  be  given  to 
brushes,  but  if  they  are  left 
soaking  too  long  in  the  solu- 
tion, the  bristles  will  be  eaten 
off. 


Fig.  245.    Brush-keeper. 


EQUIPMENT  AND  CARE  OF  THE  SHOP 


REFERENCES: 


Murray,   Year  Book  1906,  p.  69. 
Bailey,  M.  T.  Mag.  9:138.     Dec.  '07. 
Rouillion,  pp.  48-90. 
Hammacher  and  Sch'lemmer,  passim. 


*For  general  bibliography,   see   p.   4. 


CHAPTER  Vli. 
THE  COMMON  JOINTS. 

Wherever  two  or  more  pieces  of  wood  are  fastened  together,  we 
lave  what  is  properly  called  joinery.  In  common  usage  the  term  in- 
dicates the  framing  of  the  interior  wood  finish  of  buildings  and  ships, 
but  it  is  also  used  to  include  cabinet-making,  which  is  the  art  of  con- 
structing furniture,  and  even  the  trades  of  the  wheelwright,  carriage- 
maker,  and  cooper.  Since  joinery  involves  the  constant  use  of  joints, 
a  reference  list  of  them,  with  illustrations,  definitions,  uses,  and  di- 
rections for  making  typical  ones  may  be  of  convenience  to  workers 
in  wood. 

HEADING  JOINTS 

No.  1.  A  lapped  and  strapped  joint,  Fig.  264,  p.  177,  is  made  by 
laying  the  end  of  one  timber  over  another  and  fastening  them  both 
together  with  bent  straps  on  the  ends  of  which  are  screws  by  which 
they  may  be  tightened.  It  is  a  very  strong  joint  and  is  used  where 
the  beams  need  lengthening  as  in  false  work  or  in  long  ladders  and 
flag  poles. 

No.  2.  A  fished  joint,  Fig.  264,  is  made  by  butting  the  squared 
ends  of  two  timbers  together  and  placing  short  pieces  of  wood  or  iron, 
called  fish-plates,  over  the  faces  of  the  timbers  and  bolting  or  spiking 
the  whole  firmly  together.  It  is  used  for  joining  timbers  in  the  di- 
rection of  their  length,  as  in  boat  construction. 

No.  3.  In  a  fished  joint,  Fig.  264,  keys  are  often  inserted  between 
the  fish-plate  and  beam  at  right  angles  to  the  bolts  in  order  to  lessen 
the  strain  that  comes  upon  the  bolts  when  the  joint  is  subjected  to 
tension.  In  wide  pieces  and  for  extra  strength,  as  in  bridge  work,  the 
bolts  may  be  staggered. 

Nos.  4,  5,  6  and  7.  A  scarf  or  spliced  joint,  Fig.  264,  is  made  by 
joining  together  with  flush  surfaces  the  ends  of  two  timbers  in  such 
a  way  as  to  enable  them  to  resist  compression,  as  in  No.  4;  tension, 
as  in  No.  5;  both,  as  in  No.  6,  where  the  scarf  is  tabled;  or  cross 

151 


152 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


strain  as  in  No.  7.  No.  4  is  used  in  house  sills  and  in  splicing  out 
short  posts,  Nos.  5  and  6  in  open  frame  work.  No.  7  with  or  without 
the  fish-plate,  is  used  in  boats  and  canoes,  and  is  sometimes  called  a 
boat-builder's  joint,  to  distinguish  it  from  No.  4,  a  carpenter's  joint. 
A  joint  to  resist  cross  strain  is  stronger  when  scarfed  in  the  direction 
of  the  strain  than  across  it.  No.  7  is  the  plan,  not  elevation,  of  a 
joint  to  receive  vertical  cross  strain. 


Y 


X 


BUTT   JOINTS 

rNo.  8.    A  doweled  butt-joint,  Fig.  264,  is  made  by  inserting,  with 
glue,  dowel-pins  into  holes  bored  into  the  two  members.     The  end  of 

one  member  is  butted  against 
the  face  or  edge  of  the  other. 
It  is  used  in  cabinet-making 
where  the  presence  of  nails 
would  be  unseemly. 

In  a  doweled  butt-joint  the 
dowels  may  go  clear  thru  the 
outside  member,  and  be  fin- 
ished as  buttons  on  the  out- 
side, where  they  show.^  To  lay 
out  this  joint  mark  near  the 
ends  of  the  edges  of  the  abut- 
ting member,  X,  Fig.  246,  cen- 
ter-lines A  B.  Draw  on  the 
other  member  Y,  a  sharp  pen- 
cil-line, to  which  when  the 

lines  AB  on  X  are  fitted,  X  will  be  in  its  proper  place.  Carry  this 
line  around  to  the  other  side  of  Y  and  locate  on  it  the  proper  center?, 
for  the  dowel-holes,  E  and  F.  Then  fasten  on  the  end  of  X  a  hand- 
screw  in  such  a  way  that  the  jaws  will  be  flush  with  the  end.  .With 
another  handscrew,  clamp  this  handscrew  to  Y,  in  such  a  way  that 
the  marks  on  the  two  pieces  match,  A  to  C  and  B  to  D,  Fig.  247. 
Bore  at  the  proper  places,  E  and  F,  holes  directly  thru  Y  into  X. 

Fig.  248  illustrates  the  gluing  together  of  a  four-legged  stand  in 
which  the  joints  are  made  in  this  way.     The  cross-lap  joints  of  the 
stretchers  are  first  glued  together,  then  the  other  joints  are  assem 
bled  without  glue,  to  s^e  that  all  the  parts  fit  and  finally  two  opposite 


Fig-.  246.     i.,ay-out  for  Thru  Doweling-. 


THE   COMMON   JOINTS. 


153 


Fig.  247.    Thru  Boring  for  a  Butt  Joint. 


Fig.  248.    Gluing  Up  a  Four-legged  Stand. 


154 


HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 


Fig.  249.    Laying-  out  a  Dowel  Joint. 


sides  are  glued  at  a  time.     Pieces  of  paper  are  laid  inside  the  gluing 
blocks  to  prevent  them  from  sticking  to  the  legs. 

In  case  the  dowels  are  to  be  hidden  the  chief  difficulty  is  to  lo- 
cate the  holes  properly.  One  method  of  procedure  is  as  follows :  To 

dowel  the  end  of  one  member 
against  the  face  of  the  other  as 
a  stringer  into  a  rail  or  a  rail 
into  a  table  leg,  first  lay  out 
the  position  of  the  dowels  in 
the  end  of  the  first  member, 
X,  Fig.  249.  Gage  a  center-line, 
A  B,  across  this  end  length- 
wise, locate  the  centers  of  the 
dowel-holes,  and  square  across 
with  a  knife  point,  as  CD  and 
EF.  Gage  a  line  on  the  other 
member  to  correspond  with  the 
line  AB.  On  the  face  so 
gaged,  lay  the  first  member  on 
its  side  so  that  one  arris  lies 

along  this  gaged  line  and  prick  off  the  points  D  and  F,  to  get  the 
centers  of  the  dowel-holes. 

If,  as  is  usual,  there  are  a  number  of  similar  joints  to  be  made, 
a  device  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  249  will  expedite  matters.  1  and 
2  are  points  of  brads  driven  thru  a  piece  of  soft  wood,  which  has  been 
notched  out,  and  are  as  far  apart  as  the  dowels.  A-l  is  the  distance 
from  the  working  edge  of  the  rail  to  the  first  dowel.  The  same 
measure  can  be  used  from  the  end  of  the  leg. 

When  the  centers  are  all  marked,  bore  the  holes.  Insert  the 
dowels  into  the  holes  and  make  a  trial  assembly.  If  any  rail  is 
twisted  from  its  proper  plane,  note  carefully  where  the  error  is,  take 
apart,  glue  a  dowel  into  the  hole,  that  is  wrong,  pare  it  off  flush  with 
the  surface,  and  re-bore  in  such  a  place  that  the  parts,  when  assem- 
bled, will  come  up  true.  When  everything  fits,  glue  and  clamp  together. 
No.  9.  A  toe-nailed  joint,  Fig.  264,  is  made  by  driving  nails 
diagonally  thru  the  corners  of  one  member  into  the  other.  It  is  used 
in  fastening  the  studding  to  the  sill  in  balloon  framing. 

No.  10.  A  draw-bolt  joint,  Fig.  264,  is  made  by  inserting  an  iron 
bolt  thru  a  hole  in  one  member  and  into  the  other  to  meet  a  nut 


THE   COMMON   JOINTS.  155 

inserted  from  the  side  of  the  second  member.     It  is  very  strong  and 
is  used  in  bench  construction,  wooden  machinery,  etc. 

No.  11.  A  plain  butt-joint,  Fig.  264,  is  one  in  which  the  mem-| 
bers  join  endwise  or  edgewise  without  overlapping.  It  is  used  on 
returns  as  in  ordinary  boxes  and  cases. 

No.  12.  A  glued  and  blocked  joint,  Fig.  264,  is  made  bv  gluing 
and  rubbing  a  block  in  the  inside  corner  of  two  pieces  which  are 
butted  and  glued  together.  It  is  used  in  stair-work  and  cabinet- 
work, as  in  the  corners  of  bureaus,^ 

No.  13.  A  hopper-joint,  Fig.  264,  is  a  butt-joint,  but  is  peculiar 
in  that  the  edges  of  the  boards  are  not  square  with  their  faces  on 
account  of  the  pitch  of  the  sides.  It  is  used  in  hoppers,  bins,  chutes, 
etc.  The  difficulty  in  laying  out  this  joint  is  to  obtain  the,  proper 
angle  for  the  edges  of  the  pieces.  This  may  be  done  as  follows : 
After  the  pieces  are  planed  to  the  correct  thickness,  plane  the  upper 
and  lower  edges  of  the  end  pieces  to  the  correct  bevel  as  shown  by 
the  pitch  of  the  sides.  Lay  out  the  pitch  of  the  sides  of  the  hopper 
on  the  outside  of  the  end  pieces.  From  the  ends  of  these  lines,  on 
the  upper  and  lower  beveled  edges  score  lines  at  right  angles  with 
the  knife  and  try-square.  Connect  these  lines  on  what  will  be  the 
inside  of  the  hopper.  Saw  off  the  surplus  wood  and  plane  to  the 
lines  thus  scored.  The  side  pieces  may  be  finished  in  the  same  way, 
and  the  parts  are  then  ready  to  be  assembled. 

HALVING-JOINTS 

A  halved  joint  is  one  in  which  half  the  thickness  of  each  member 
is  notched  out  and  the  remaining  portion  of  one  just  fits  into  the 
notch  in  the  other,  so  that  the  upper  and  under  surfaces  of  the  mem- 
bers are  flush. 

No.  14-  A  cross-lap  joint,  Fig.  264,  is  a  halved  joint  in  which 
both  members  project  both  ways  from  the  joint.  This  is  a  very  com- 
mon joint  used  in  both  carpentry  and  joinery,  as  where  stringers 
cross  each  other  in  the  same  plane.  / 

The  two  pieces  are  first  dressed  exactly  to  the  required  size, 
either  separately  or  by  the  method  of  making  duplicate  parts,  see 
Chap.  IX,  p.  204.  Lay  one  member,  called  X,  across  the  other  in 
the  position  which  they  are  to  occupy  when  finished  and  mark  plainly 
their  upper  faces,  which  will  be  flush  when  the  piece  is  finished. 
Locate  the  middle  of  the  length  of  the  lower  piece,  called  Y,  on  one 


156  HANDWORK  IN    WOOD. 

arris,  and  from  this  point  lay  off  on  this  arris  half  the  width  of  the 
upper  piece,  X.  From  this  point  square  across  Y  with  the  knife 
and  try-square.  Lay  X  again  in  its  place,  exactly  along  the  line 
just  scored.  Then  mark  with  the  knife  on  Y  the  width  of  X,  which 
may  then  be  removed  and  the  second  line  squared  across  Y.  From 
these  two  lines  square  across  both  edges  of  Y  to  approximately  one- 
half  the  thickness.  Now  turn  X  face  down,  lay  Y  on  it,  and  mark 
it  in  the  same  way  as  Y.  Set  the  gage  at  one-half  the  thickness  of 
the  pieces,  and  gage  between  the  lines  on  the  edges,  taking  care  to 
hold  the  head  of  the  gage  against  the  marked  faces.  Then  even  if 
one  piece  is  gaged  so  as  to  be  cut  a  little  too  deep,  the  other  will  be 
gaged  so  as  to  be  cut  proportionately  less,  and  the  joint  will  fit. 

Cut  a  slight  triangular  groove  on  the  waste  side  of  the  knife- 
marks,  Fig.  91,  p.  66,  saw  accurately  to  the  gaged  lines,  and  chisel 
out  the  waste  as  in  a  dado,  see  Figs.  70  and  71,  p.  56. 

The  bottom  of  the  dado  thus  cut  should  be  flat  so  as  to  afford 
surface  for  gluing.  When  well  made,  a  cross-lap  joint  does  not  need 
to  be  pounded  together  but  will  fit  tight  under  pressure  of  the  hands. 

To.  15.  A  middle-lap  joint  or  halved  tee,  Fig.  265,  is  made  in 
the  same  way  as  a  cross-lap  joint,  but  one  member  projects  from  the 
joint  in  only  one  direction.  It  is  used  to  join  stretchers  to  rails  as 
in  floor  timbers. 

Xo.  16.  An  end-hip  joint,  Fig.  265,  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  a 
cross-lap  joint  except  that  the  joint  is  at  the  end  of  both  members.  It 
is  used  at  the  corners  of  sills  and  plates,  also  sometimes  in  chair-seats,  j 

To  make  an  end-lap  joint,  place  the  members  in  their  relative 
positions,  faces  up,  and  mark  plainly.  Mark  carefully  on  each  mem- 
ber the  inside  corner,  allowing  the  end  of  each  member  slightly  (1/16") 
to  overlap  the  other.  Square  across  at  these  points  with  a  sharp 
knife  point,  on  the  under  side  of  the  upper  member,  and  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  lower  member.  Now  proceed  as  in  the  cross-lap 
joint,  except  that  the  gaged  line  runs  around  the  end  and  the  cut- 
ting must  be  done  exactly  to  this  line. 

Xo.  17.  In  an  end-lap  joint  on  rabbeted  pieces,  Fig.  265,  the 
joint  must  be  adapted  to  the  rabbet.  The  rabbet  should  therefore 
be  plowed  before  the  joint  is  made.  The  rabbet  at  the  end  of  the 
piece  X  is  cut  not  the  entire  width  of  the  piece  Y,  but  only  the  width 
of  the  lap, — c-f— a-e.  This  joint  is  used  occasionally  in  picture- 
frames. 


THE   COMMON   JOINTS.  157 

No.  18.  A  dovetail  halving  or  lap-dovetail,  Fig.  265,  is  a  mid- 
dle-lap joint  with  the  pin  made  dovetail  in  shape,  and  is  thus  better 
able  to  resist  tension.  It  is  used  for  strong  tee  joints. 

No.  19.  A  leveled  halving,  Fig.  265,  is  made  like  a  middle-lap 
joint  except  that  the  inner  end  of  the  upper  member  is  thinner  so 
that  the  adjoining  cheeks  are  beveled.  It  is  very  strong  when  loaded 
above.  It  was  formerly  used  in  house  framing. 

MODIFIED  HALVING  JOINTS 

No.  20.  A  notched  joint,  Fig.  265,  is  made  by  cutting  out  a 
portion  of  one  timber.  It  is  used  where  it  is  desired  to  reduce  the 
height  occupied  by  the  upper  timber.  Joists  are  notched  on  to 
wall  plates. 

No.  21.  A  checked  joint  or  double  notch,  Fig.  265,  is  made  by 
cutting  out  notches  from  both  the  timbers  so  as  to  engage  each 
other.  It  is  used  where  a  single  notch  would  weaken  one  member 
too  much. 

No.  22.  A  cogged  or  corked  or  caulked  joint,  Fig.  265,  is  made 
by  cutting  out  only  parts  of  the  notch  on  the  lower  piece,  leaving  a 
"cog"  uncut.  From  the  upper  piece  a  notch  is  cut  only  wide  enough 
to  receive  the  cog.  A  cogged  joint  is  stronger  than  a  notched  because 
the  upper  beam  is  not  weakened  at  its  point  of  support.  It  is  used 
in  heavy  framing. 

\No.  23.  A  forked  tenon  joint,  Fig.  265,  is  made  by  cutting  a 
fork  in  the  end  of  one  member,  and  notching  the  other  member  to 
fit  into  the  fork,  so  that  neither  piece  can  slip.  It  is  used  in  knock- 
down furniture  and  in  connecting  a  muntin  to  a  rail,  where  it  is 
desired  that  the  muntin  should  run  thru  and  also  that  the  rail  be 
continuous. 

\~No.  24.  A  rabbet  or 'rebate  or  ledge  joint,  Fig.  266,  is  made  by 
cutting  out  a  portion  of  the  side  or  end  of  a  board  or  timber  X  to 
receive  the  end  or  side  of  another,  Y.  It  may  then  be  nailed  from 
either  the  side  or  end  or  from  both.  The  neatest  way  in  small  boxes 
is  from  the  end,  or  better  still  it  may  be  only  glued. 

No.  25.  A  dado  or  grooved  joint,  Fig.  266,  is  made  by  cutting 
in  one  member  a  groove  into  which  the  end  or  edge  of  the  other 
member  fits.  Properly  speaking  a  groove  runs  with  the  grain,  a 
dado  across  it,  so  that  the  bottom  of  a  drawer  is  inserted  in  a  groove 
while  the  back  of  the  drawer  is  inserted  in  a  dado.  Where  the  whole 


158  HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 

of  the  end  of  one  member  is  let  into  the  other,  such  a  dado  is  also 
called  a  housed  dado.  Treads  of  stairs  are  housed  into  string  boards. 

To  lay  out  a  dado  joint:  After  carefully  dressing  up  both  pieces 
to  be  joined,  locate  accurately  with  a  knife  point,  on  the  member  to 
be  dadoed,  called  X,  one  side  of  the  dado,  and  square  across  the  piece 
with  a  try-square  and  knife.  Then  locate  the  other  side  of  the  dado 
by  placing,  if  possible,  the  proper  part  of  the  other  member,  called  Y, 
close  to  the  line  drawn.  If  this  method  of  superposition  is  not  pos- 
sible, locate  by  measurement.  Mark,  with  a  knife  point,  on  X,  the 
thickness  thus  obtained.  Square  both  these  lines  as  far  across  the 
edges  of  X  as  Y  is  to  be  inserted.  Gage  to  the  required  depth  on 
both  edges  with  the  marking-gage. 

To  cut  the  joint:  First  make  with  the  knife  a  triangular  groove 
on  the  waste  side  of  each  line,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  91,  p.  66,  and 
starting  in  the  grooves  thus  made,  saw  with  the  back-saw  to  the  gaged 
lines  on  both  edges.  The  waste  may  now  be  taken  out  either  with  a 
chisel  or  with  a  router,  Fig.  122,  p.  83.  The  second  member,  Y, 
should  just  fit  into  a  dado  thus  made,  but  if  the  joint  is  too  tight, 
the  cheeks  of  the  dado  may  be  pared  with  a  chisel.  In  delicate  work 
it  is  often  wise  not  to  saw  at  all,  but  to  use  only  the  knife  and  chisel. 
;  No.  26.  A  dado  and  rabbet,  Fig.  266,  is  made  by  cutting  a  dado 
in  one  member,  X,  and  a  rabbet  on  the  other,  Y,  in  such  a  way  that 
the  projecting  parts  of  both  members  will  fit  tight  in  the  returns  of 
the  other  member.  It  is  used  in  boxes  and  gives  plenty  of  surface 
for  gluing. 

No.  27.  A  dado,  tongue  and  rabbet,  Fig.  266,  is  a  compound 
joint,  made  by  cutting  a  rabbet  on  one  member,  Y,  and  then  a  dado 
in  this  rabbet,  into  which  fits  a  tongue  of  the  other  member,  X.  It 
is  *ased  in  machine-made  drawers. 

No.  28.  A  dovetail  dado  or  gain,  Fig.  266,  is  made  by  cutting 
one  or  both  of  the  sides  of  the  infitting  member,  Y,  on  an  angle  so 
that  it  has  to  be  slid  into  place  and  cannot  be  pulled  out  sidewise. 
It  is  used  in  book-cases  and  similar  work,  in  which  the  shelves  are 
fixed. 

To  make  this  joint,  first  lay  out  the  dovetail  on  the  member  to 
be  inserted,  called  Y,  thus:  Across  one  end  square  a  line  (A  B, 
No.  28),  at  the  depth  to  which  this  member  is  to  be  dadoed  in.  Set 
the  bevel-square  at  the  proper  angle  for  a  dovetail,  Fig.  250.  Score 
this  angle  on  the  edges  of  the  member,  as  at  C  D.  Cut  a  groove  with 


THE    COMMON   JOINTS. 


159 


K         /'/f          /K          iK 


s^  ^  ^ 


E  fX  E  I 

&~T g  t>  f    g  c  f     g 

X 


f'    Si      f    8'      -f     Sf     /     Sf 


a  knife  on  the  waste  side  of  A  B.  Saw  to  the  depth  A  C,  and  chisel 
out  the  interior  angle  A  C  D. 

Then  lay  out  the  other  member,  X,  thus :  mark  with  the  knife  the 
proper  place  for  the  flat  side  of 
Y,  square  this  line  across  the 
face  and  on  the  edges  as  for  a 
simple  dado.  Lay  out  the 
thickness  of  Y  on  the  face  of 
X  by  superposition  or  otherwise 
and  square  the  face  and  edges, 
not  with  a  knife  but  with  a 
sharp  pencil  point.  Gage  the 
required  depth  on  the  edges. 
>w  with  the  bevel-square  as  al- 
ready set,  lay  out  the  angle  A  C 
D  on  the  edges  of  X,  and  across 
the  face  at  C  score  a  line  with 
mife  and  try-square.  Cut  out 
grooves  in  the  waste  for  the 
saw  as  in  a  simple  dado,  and 
saw  to  the  proper  depth  and  at 
the  proper  angle.  Chisel  or 
rout  out  the  waste  and  when 
complete,  fit  the  pieces  together. 

No.  29.     A  gain  joint,  Fig. 
266,  is  a  dado  which  runs  only 

partly  across  one  member,  X.  In  order  to  make  the  edges  of  both 
members  flush  and  to  conceal  the  blind  end  of  the  gain,  the  corner 
of  the  other  member,  Y,  is  correspondingly  notched  out.  In  book 
shelves  a  gain  gives  a  better  appearance  than  a  dado. 

A  gain  joint  is  laid  out  in  the  same  way  as  the  dado,  except  that 
the  lines  are  not  carried  clear  across  the  face  of  X,  and  only  one 
edge  is  squared  and  gaged  to  the  required  depth.  Knife  grooves  are 
made  in  the  waste  for  starting  the  saw  as  in  the  dado.  Before  saw- 
ing, the  blind  end  of  the  gain  is  to  be  chiseled  out  for  a  little  space 
so  as  to  give  play  for  the  back-saw  in  cutting  down  to  the  required 
depth.  To  avoid  sawing  too  deep  at  the  blind  end,  the  sawing  and 
chiseling  out  of  waste  may  be  carried  on  alternately,  a  little  at  a 


250.     Laying  Out  a  Dovetail  Joint. 


160  HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 

time,  till  the  required  depth  is  reached.  It  is  easy  to  measure  the 
depth  of  the  cut  by  means  of  a  small  nail  projecting  the  proper 
amount  from  a  trial  stick,  Fig.  251.  The  use  of  the  router,  Fig.  122, 
p.  83.  facilitates  the  cutting,  and  insures  an  even  depth. 

MORTISE-AND-TENON    JOINTS 

The  tenon  in  its  simplest  form  is  made  by  dividing  the  end  of  a 
piece  of  wood  into  three  parts  and  cutting  out  rectangular  pieces  on 
both  sides  of  the  part  left  in  the  middle.     The 
mortise  is  the  rectangular  hole  cut  to  receive  the 
tenon    and    is    made    slightly    deeper    than    the 
tenon  is  long.     The  sides  of  the  tenon  and  of 
the  mortise  are  called  "cheeks"  and  the  "shoul- 
Figr'  25for  Dado!h'gage       ders"  of  the  tenon  are  the  Parts  abutting  against 

the  mortised  piece. 

No.  30.  A  stub  mortise-and-tenon,  Fig.  266,  is  made  by  cutting 
only  two  sides  of  the  tenon  beam.  It  was  formerly  used  for  lower 
ends  of  studding  or  other  upright  pieces  to  prevent  lateral  motion. 

No.  31.  A  thru  mortise-and-tenon,  Fig.  266,  is  made  by  cutting 
the  mortise  clear  thru  one  member  and  by  cutting  the  depth  of  the 
tenon  equal  to  or  more  than  the  thickness  of  the  mortised  member. 
The  cheeks  of  the  tenon  may  be  cut  on  two  or  four  sides.  It  is  used 
in  window  sashes. 

A  thru  mortise-and-tenon  joint  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  a 
blind  mortise-and-tenon  (see  below),  except  that  the  mortise  is  laid 
out  on  the  two  opposite  surfaces,  and  the  boring  and  cutting  are  done 
from  both,  cutting  first  from  one  side  and  then  from  the  other. 

No.  32.  A  blind  mortise-and-tenon,,  Fig.  266,,  is  similar  to  the 
simple  mortise-and-tenon  described  in  30.  The  tenon  does  not  ex- 
tend thru  the  mortised  member  and  the  cheeks  of  the  tenon  may  be 
cut  on  two  or  four  sides. 

To  make  a  blind  mortise-and-tenon,  first  make  the  tenon  thus: 
Locate  accurately  with  a  knife  point  the  shouders  of  the  tenon  and 
square  entirely  around  the  piece.  On  the  working  edge  near  the  end 
mark  the  thickness  of  the  tenon.  Set  the  marking-gage  at  the  proper 
distance  from  the  working  face  to  one  cheek  of  the  tenon  and  gage 
the  end  and  the  two  edges  between  the  end  and  the  knife-lines.  Eeset 
the  gage  to  mark  the  thickness  of  the  tenon  and  gage  that  in  the  same 
way  from  the  working  face.  Then  mark  and  gage  the  width  of  the 


THE   COMMON   JOINTS.  161 

tenon  in  the  same  way.  Whenever  there  are  several  tenons  of  the 
same  size  to  be  cut,  they  should  all  be  laid  out  together,  that  is  the 
marking-gage  set  once  to  mark  all  face  cheeks  and  once  to  mark  all 
back  cheeks.  If  a  mortise-gage  is  available,  use  that.  Always  mark 
from  the  working  face  or  working  edge.  Cut  out  a  triangular  groove 
on  the  waste  side  of  the  knife  lines  (at  the  shoulders)  as  in  cutting  a 
dado,  Fig.  91,  p.  66. 

In  cutting  the  tenon,  first  rip-saw  just  outside  the  gaged  lines, 
then  crosscut  at  the  shoulder  lines.  Do  all  the  rip-sawing  before  the 
crosscutting.  If  the  pieces  are  small  the  back-saw  may  be  used  for 
all  cuts.  It  is  well  to  chamfer  the  arrises  at  the  end  of  the  tenon  to 
insure  its  starting  easily  into  the  mortise. 

Locate  the  ends  of  the  mortise  and  square  lines  across  with  a 
sharp  pencil  in  order  to  avoid  leaving  knife  marks  on  the  finished 
piece.  Then  locate  the  sides  of  the  mortise  from  the  thickness  of  the 
tenon,  already  determined,  and  gage  between  the  cross  lines.  As  in 
the  case  of  like  tenons,  if  there  are  a  number  of  mortises  all  alike, 
set  the  gage  only  twice  for  them  all. 

In  cutting  the  mortise,  first  fasten  the  piece  so  that  it  will  rest 
solid  on  the  bench.  This  may  be  done  either  in  a  tail  vise  or  by  a 
handscrew,  or  by  clamping  the  bench-hook  firmly  in  the  vise  in  such  a 
way  that  the  cleat  of  the  bench-hook  overhangs  the  piece.  Then  tap 
the  bench-hook  with  a  mallet  and  the  piece  will  be  found  to  be  held 
tightly  down  on  the  bench.  See  Fig.  76,  p.  58. 

It  is  common  to  loosen  up  the  wood  by  first  boring  a  series  of  ad- 
joining holes  whose  centers  follow  the  center-line  of  the  mortise  and 
whose  diameter  is  slightly  less  than  the  width  of  the  mortise.  Take 
care  to  bore  perpendicularly  to  the  surface,  see  Fig.  137,  p.  86,  and 
no  deeper  than  necessary.  Dig  out  the  portions  of  wood  between  the 
auger  holes  and  chisel  off  thin  slices,  back  to  the  gage-lines  and  to- 
the  knife-lines,  taking  care  all  the  time  to  keep  the  sides  of  the  mor- 
tise perpendicular  to  the  face.  This  may  be  tested  by  placing  tne 
chisel  against  the  side  of  the  mortise  and  standing  alongside  it  a 
try-square  with  its  head  resting  on  the  surface. 

Finally  test  the  tenon  in  the  mortise  noting  carefully  where  it 
pinches,  if  anywhere,  and  trim  carefully.  The  tighter  it  fits  without 
danger  of  splitting  the  mortised  member,  the  stronger  wil]  be  the  joint. 

Many  prefer  to  dig  mortises  without  first  boring  holes.  For  this 
purpose  a  mortise-chisel,  Fig.  68,  p.  54,  is  desirable.  The  method  is 


162  HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 

to  begin  at  the  middle  of  the  mortise,  placing  the  chisel — which 
should  be  as  wide  as  the  mortise — at  right  angles  to  the  grain  of  the 
wood.  Chisel  out  a  V  shaped  opening  about  as  deep  as  the  mortise,, 
and  then  from  this  hole  work  back  to  each  end,  occasionally  prying 
out  the  chips.  Work  with  the  flat  side  of  the  chisel  toward  the  mid- 
dle except  the  last  cut  or  two  at  the  ends  of  the  mortise. 

,  No.  33.  In  a  mortise-and-tenon  joint  on  rabbeted  pieces,  Fig. 
266,  the  tenon  is  as  much  shorter  on  one  side  than  the  other  as  the 
rabbet  is  wide.  In  Fig.  33,  ab=cd. 

No.  34-  A  wedged  mortise-and-tenon  joint,  Fig.  266,  is  a  thru 
joint  in  which  after  the  tenon  is  driven  home,  wedges  are  driven  in 
between  the  tenon  and  the  sides  of  the  mortise.  The  wedges  are 
dipped  in  glue  or  white  lead  before  being  inserted.  The  sides  of  the 
mortise  may  be  slightly  dovetailed.  It  is  used  to  keep  a  tenon  tightly 
fixed  as  in  wheel  spokes. 

No.  35.  A  wedged  mortise-and-tenon  joint,  Fig.  266,  may  also  be 
made  by  driving  the  wedges  into  saw  kerfs  in  the  tenon  instead  of 
along  its  sides  as  in  34.  It  is  used  in  ornamental  joints  as  well  as 
in  carpentry. 

No.  36.  A  fox-tail  tenon,  Fig.  266,  is  a  blind  mortise-and-tenon 
in  which  the  mortise  is  made  slightly  wider  at  the  bottom  than  the 
width  of  the  tenon.  Wedges  are  driven  into  saw  kerfs  in  the  tenon 
before  inserting  into  the  mortise;  then  when  it  is  driven  home  the 
wedges  spread  out  the  tenon  and  make  it  fill  out  the  mortise.  It  is 
used  in  strong  doors  and  also  where  the  mortised  member  is  already 
in  place  so  that  a  wedged  mortise-and-tenon  is  impossible. 

No.  37.  A  dovetail  mortise-and-tenon,  Fig.  266,  is  a  thru  mor- 
tise-and-tenon beveled  on  one  side  so  as  to  form  half  a  dovetail.  The 
corresponding  side  of  the  mortise  is  also  beveled  and  made  wide 
enough  so  that  when  the  tenon  is  pressed  well  up  against  its  beveled 
side  a  wedge  may  be  driven  into  the  space  left  on  the  straight  side. 
It  is  used  to  tenon  a  beam  into  a  post  especially  where  the  post  is 
fixed  against  a  wall.  It  is  also  used  in  machinery  frames  which  are 
made  of  wood. 

No.  38.  A  pinned  mortise-and-tenon,  Fig.  267,  is  one  in  which  a 
pin  is  driven  thru  ho'es  bored  thru  the  mortised  beam  and  thru  the 
tenon  to  keep  them  from  drawing  apart.  It  is  used  in  heavy  framing 
as  in  bridges,  in  wagon-making,  in  window-sash,  etc. 


THE    COMMON    JOINTS. 


163 


No.  39.  A  keyed  mortise-and-tenon,  Fig.  267,  is  one  in  which  the 
tenon  protrudes  thru  the  mortise  far  enough  to  receive  a  removable 
key  and  thus  be  drawn  up  tight  to  the  mortised  member.  It  is  used 
in  work-benches  and  in  ornamental  joints  like  knock-down  bookcases 
and  in  other  mission  furniture. 

The  keyed  mortise-and-tenon  is  made  as  in  a  thru  mortise-and- 
tenon,  except  that  before  cutting  the  tenons  the  holes  for  wedges 
should  be  laid  out  thus:  measuring 
from  the  shoulder  of  the  tenon,  locate 
by  superposition  or  measurement  the 
outside  of  the  mortised  member.  De- 
duct from  this  1/16"  and  square  a  fine 
pencil-line  across  the  face  and  opposite 
side.  This  line  will  be  the  inside  of 
the  hole  for  the  wedge,  and  the  1/16" 
is  deducted  to  make  sure  that  the  key 
wedges  against  the  mortised  member. 
On  the  upper  surface  of  the  tenon,  lay 
off  toward  the  end  the  width  of  the 
wedge  at  this  point,  A  B,  Fig.  252, 
and  square  across.  On  the  under  sur- 
face, lay  off  the  width  of  the  wedge  at 
this  point,  C  D,  and  square  across. 

Gage  the  sides  of  the  wedge  hole  on  both  upper  and  lower  sur- 
faces of  the  tenon.  After  cutting  the  mortise  and  tenon,  bore  and 
chisel  out  the  hole  for  the  wedge,  taking  care  to  cut  the  side  toward 
the  end  on  a  bevel  to  fit  the  wedge. 

No.  40.  A  tusk  tenon  or  shoulder  tenon,  Fig.  267,  is  one  in  which 
the  tenon  proper  is  quite  thin  but  is  reinforced  by  a  thicker  shoulder 
called  a  "tusk."  The  upper  shoulder  is  beveled.  The  object  of  this 
form  is  to  weaken  the  mortised  member  as  little  as  possible  but  at 
the  same  time  to  increase  the  strength  of  the  tenon.  It  is  used  in 
joining  tail  beams  to  headers  in  floor  framing. 

No.  41-  A  double  mortise-and-tenon,  Fig.  267,  consists  of  two 
tenons  side  by  side  in  one  piece  fitting  into  two  corresponding  mor- 
tises. It  is  used  in  joinery,  as  in  door-frames,  but  not  in  carpentry. 

No.  42.  A  haunched  mortise-and-tenon,  Fig.  267,  is  made  by 
cutting  away  part  of  the  tenon  so  that  that  part  of  it  will  be  much 
shorter  than  the  rest.  The  haunch  gives  the  tenon  great  lateral 


Fig-.    252.       Keyed     Mortise-and- 
Tenon  Joint. 


164  HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 

strength  and  saves  cutting  so  large  a  mortise  hole.  It  is  used  in 
panel  construction,  as  where  the  rails  are  joined  to  the  stiles  of  doors. 

First  plow  the  groove  in  all  the  members.  This  should  be  of  the 
same  width  as  the  thickness  of  the  tenons,  which  is  ordinarily  one- 
third  of  the  thickness  of  the  frame.  The  groove  is  approximately  as 
deep  as  it  is  wide.  Lay  out  and  cut  the  tenon  the  width  of  the  entire 
piece,  minus,  of  course,  the  depth  of  the  groove.  The  mortise  should 
not  come  too  near  the  end,  or  the  portion  of  wood  outside  it  will 
shear  out.  Hence  the  tenon  is  narrowed  on  the  outside  enough  to 
insure  strength  in  the  mortised  piece.  The  rule  is  that  the  tenon 
should  be  one-half  the  width  of  the  rail,  minus  the  groove.  But 
enough  of  the  tenon  is  left  full  width  to  fill  up  the  groove  at  the 
outer  end  of  the  mortised  piece.  This  is  called  the  haunch.  The 
width  of  the  mortise  is  equal  to  the  width  of  the  groove,  its  length 
to  the  width  of  the  tenon.  Before  assembling  the  panel  frame,  put 
soap  or  tallow  on  the  corners  of  the  panel  to  prevent  its  being  glued 
to  the  frame. 

No.  43.  Table  or  taper  haunching,  Fig.  267.  Sometimes,  as  in 
table  construction,  for  the  sake  of  stiffening  the  rail,  or  in  places 
where  it  is  desirable  that  the  haunch  does  not  show,  the  haunch  is  bev- 
eled from  the  tenon  to  the  edge  of  the  rail. 

No.  44-  A  bare-faced  tenon,  Fig.  267,  is  one  in  which  a  cheek  ib 
cut  from  only  one  side.  It  is  used  where  the  rail  is  thinner  than  the 
stile  and  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the  mortise  near  the  middle  of  the  stile. 

No.  45.  A  housed  mortise-and-tenon,  Fig.  267,  is  one  in  which 
the  whole  of  the  end  of  one  member  is  let  in  for  a  short  distance  or 
"housed"  into  the  other.  It  is  common  in  grill  work  and  in  railings. 

No.  46.  A  slip-joint  or  end  or  open  mortise-and-tenon,  Fig.  267, 
is  what  would  remain  if  a  mortised  member  were  sawn  off  along  one 
side  of  the  tenoned  member.  Window  screens  and  other  light  frames 
such  as  those  for  slates  and  for  printing  photographs  have  this  joint. 
This  joint  multiplied  is  used  for  small  machine-made  boxes,  and  is 
then  called  corner  locking. 

DOVETAIL  JOINTS 

"Dovetail"'  refers  to  the  shape  of  the  projections  of  one  member, 
when  looked  at  broadside.  These  projections  are  called  dovetails,  or 
merely  tails. 


THE   COMMON   JOINTS.  165 

The  projections  on  the  other  .member  are  called  tenons  or  pins, 
and  the  spaces  between  both  tails  and  tenons  are  called  mortises  or 
sockets. 

No.  47.  A  thru  single  dovetail,  Fig.  267,  is  similar  to  a  slip-joint 
except  that  instead  of  a  tenon  there  is  a  dovetail.  It  is  used  in  win- 
dow-sashes. 

No.  48.  A  thru  multiple  dovetail,  Fig.  267,  consists  of  a  series  of 
alternate  tails  and  tenons  which  fit  one  another  closely.  It  is  used 
in  tool-chests  and  in  other  strong  as  well  as  fine  boxes. 

To  make  a  thru  multiple  dovetail  joint,  first  square  lines  with  a 
sharp  pencil  around  the  ends  of  both  members  to  locate  the  inner  ends 
of  the  dovetails  and  the  pins,  d  e  on  X,  Fig.  250?  and  1  m  on  Y. 
The  distance  of  this  line  from  the  ends  of  each  member  may,  if  de- 
sired, be  slightly  (1/32")  greater  than  the  thickness  of  the  other 
member.  Divide  this  line,  d  e,  on  the  member  to  be  dovetailed,  X, 
into  as  many  equal  spaces  as  there  are  to  be  tails  (dovetails).  From 
the  division  points  of  these  spaces,  a  b  c,  to  the  right  and  left  lay  off 
one-half  of  the  greatest  width  of  the  mortises  to  be  cut  out,  and  also 
the  same  distance  from  d  and  from  e,  as  at  f  f  f  f  and  g  g  g  g. 

The  strongest  arrangement  of  dovetails  is  to  make  them  equal  in 
width  to  the  spaces  between  them,  as  in  Xo.  48?  Fig.  267.  For  the 
sake  of  appearance  they  may  be  as  much  as  four  times  as  wide  as 
the  spaces,  but  ordinarily  should  not  be  wider  than  1%". 

Set  the  bevel-square  so  that  it  will  fit  the  angle  ABC,  Fig.  250, 
p.  159,  in  a  right  angle  triangle,  the  long  side  of  which  is  3"  and  the 
short  side  ffi.  This  is  approximately  an  angle  of  80°  or  a  little 
more  than  one  to  five.  From  the  points  f  f  f  f  and  g  g  g  g  lay  off 
this  angle  to  the  end  of  the  piece.  Carry  these  lines  across  the  end 
at  right  angles  to  the  surface,  h  i,  Fig.  250,  and  repeat  the  dovetail 
angles  on  the  other  surface.  Mark  plainly  the  parts  to  be  cut  out 
(the  mortises),  as  on  X  in  Fig.  250.  Score  with  a  knife  point  the  in- 
ner ends  of  the  mortises,  d  to  f,  g  to  f,  etc.,  and  across  the  edge  at  d 
and  at  e.  With  a  dovetail-saw,  Fig.  93,  p.  66,  cut  on  the  mortise 
side  of  each  line  down  to  the  cross  line,  d-e,  and  also  along  the  cross 
line  from  d  to  f  and  e  to  g.  Chisel  out  the  mortises  taking  care  to 
keep  the  line  d-e  straight  and  square.  The  ends  (not  the  sides)  of 
the  mortises  may  be  slightly  undercut  to  insure  a  tight  fit. 

Fasten  the  other  member,  Y,  upright  in  the  vise  so  that  the  end  to 
be  tenoned  will  be  flush  with  the  top  of  the  bench,  and  with  the  work- 


166  HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 

ing  face  toward  the  bench.  Place  on  it  the  working  face  of  X,  (the 
member  already  dovetailed,)  taking  care  that  the  inner  ends  of  the 
mortises  are  in  line  with  the  working  face  of  Y,  and  that  the  edges  of 
the  two  members  are  in  the  same  plane,  as  X  on  Y  in  Fig.  250.  Scribe 
with  a  knife  point  along  the  sides  of  the  tails  on  the  end  of  Y  (f'-j" 
and  g'-h').  Eemove  Y  from  the  vise  and  square  down  these  lines  to 
the  cross  line  1-m  (j'-n  and  h'-o).  Score  with  the  knife  point  the 
inner  ends  of  the  mortises  of  Y  (n-o).  Saw  with  a  dovetail-saw  on 
the  mortise  sides  of  these  lines,  chisel  out  the  mortises  and  fit  the 
parts  together.  When  glued  together,  the  joints  should  be  dressed  off. 

Where  there  are  several  parts  to  be  made  alike,  it  is  necessary  to  lay 
out  the  dovetails  on  only  one  X  member.  This  may  be  used  as  a 
templet  for  laying  out  the  others  and  they  can  then  be  sawn  sepa- 
rately. Or  all  the  X  members  may  be  clamped  carefully  together, 
with  one  X  already  laid  out,  rights  and  lefts  in  pairs,  and  edges  and 
ends  flush,  the  depth  mark  gaged  all  around,  and  then  all  sawn  at  once. 

The  dovetail  joint  is  also  made  by  first  laying  out  and  cutting  the 
members  having  the  pins,  and  then  superposing  this  on  the  piece  to 
be  dovetailed,  and  scribing  around  the  pins. 

No.  49.  A  lap  or  half  blind  dovetail,  Fig.  267,  is  a  dovetail  joint 
in  which  the  tails  on  one  member  do  not  extend  entirely  thru  the 
thickness  of  the  other  member.  It  is  used  in  joining  the  sides  to  the 
fronts  of  drawers  and  other  fittings  where  only  one  side  is  seen. 

If  the  joint  is  to  be  used  for  a  drawer  front,  the  groove  for  the 
drawer  bottom  should  be  cut  or  at  least  laid  out  before  laying  out  the 
joint.  See  also  drawers,  p.  190,  and  Fig.  287,  p.  191.  On  the 
end  of  the  drawer  front,  gage  the  depth  of  the  joint.  Gage  the  same 
distance  on  both  broad  surfaces  of  the  drawer  sides,  marking  from  the 
front  ends.  Lay  out  and  cut  the  dovetails  as  in  a  thru  dovetail  joint, 
taking  especial  care  to  have  the  groove  for  the  bottom  completely 
within  the  lower  tail.  Take  care  also  to  make  the  sides,  one  right 
and  one  left,  not  both  alike,  so  that  the  groove  will  come  inside.  Lay 
out  the  drawer  front  by  superposing  the  dovetailed  side,  X,  on  the 
end  of  the  front,  Y,  as  in  a  thru  dovetail.  Saw  and  chisel  out  the 
mortises  and  fit  together. 

No.  50.  A  stopped  lap  dovetail,  Fig.  267,  is  one  in  which  neither 
the  tails  nor  the  pins  extend  thru  the  other  members.  Hence  the 
joint  is  concealed.  The  lap  may  be  rounded.  It  is  u?ed  in  fine 
boxes,  trays,  etc. 


THE    COMMON    JOINTS. 


167 


No.  51.  The  Hind  miter  or  secret  dovetail,  Fig.  267,  is  a  joint 
in  which  only  part,  say  one-half,  of  both  boards  is  dovetailed,  the 
outer  portion  being  mitered.  The  edges  of  the  boards  are  also  mitered 
right  thru  for  a  short  distance  so  that  when  finished  the  dovetails  are 
invisible.  It  is  used  in  highly  finished  boxes. 

BEVELED  JOINTS 

A  beveled  joint  is  made  by  beveling  the  members  so  that  the  plane 
of  the  joint  bisects  the  angle  at  which  the  members  meet.  This  is 

called  the  "miter"  and  may  be 
45  degrees  or  any  other  angle. 
It  is  a  neat  but  weak  joint 
unless  reinforced  by  a  spline, 
nails,  or  in  some  other  way. 

No.  52.  A  plain  miter, 
Fig.  268,  is  a  joint  where  the 
beveled  edges  or  ends  abut  and 
are  simply  glued  or  nailed  to- 
gether. It  is  commonly  used 
in  picture-frames,  inside  trim, 
columns,  boxes,  and  taborets,  four  or  more  sided. 

For  gluing  mitered  frames,  the  most  convenient  way  is  with  the 
aid  of  the  picture-frame-vise,  Fig.  172,  p.  101.  Nails  are  driven  or 
splines  inserted  as  soon  as  each  joint  is  glued.  Where  this  vise  is 
not  available,  an  ordinary  metalworking  vise  may  be  used,  as  follows : 
Fasten  one  member,  X,  face  side  up,  firmly  in  the  vise.  Bore  holes 


Fig-.  253.     Gluing  Together 
a  Picture-Frame     (See  also  Fig.  254.) 


Fig.  254.    Picture-Frame-Clamp. 


168 


HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 


in  the  other  member,  Y,  at  the  proper  places  for  the  nails.  Insert 
nails  in  the  holes,  apply  the  glue  to  both  mitered  surfaces,  place  the 
glued  surfaces  together,  letting  Y  project  about  1/8"  beyond  X.  A 
convenient  way  to  hold  Y  in  place  is  in  the  left  hand,  palm  up,  while 


E 


found  head  screw,  /fr  ",  fllo.  /?. 


/6 


Fig-.  255.    Picture-Fratne-Clatnp.     (See  also  Fig-.  254.) 

the  left  forearm  rests  upon  X.  Drive  one  of  the  nails  home,  and 
continue  driving  until  the  parts  exactly  fit.  Then  drive  home  the 
other  nail.  Now  fasten  together  in  the  same  way  the  other  two  mem- 
bers of  the  picture-frame,  and  then,  one  at  a  time,  the  third  and 
fourth  joint.  This  is  the  method  used  in  picture-frame  factories, 
and  when  once  learned  is  very  simple. 

For  gluing  together  at  once  all  the  members  of  a  mitered  frame, 
the  device  shown  in  Fig.  253  is  convenient  and  is  easily  made. 
Out  of  two  pieces  of  wood  somewhat  longer  than  the  two  end 


THE   COMMON   JOINTS. 


169 


pieces  of  the  frame,  gains  are  cut  of  the  exact  length  of  the  ends,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration.  By  applying  two  clamps  lengthwise  o\ 
the  frame,  all  four  joints  may  be  glued  together  at  once.  If  the 
frame  does  not  come  up  square,  it  may  be  squared  by  means  of  a 
temporary  brace,  A,  in  Fig.  253. 

The  device  shown  in  Figs.  254  and  255,  is  also  an  easily  made  and 
efficient  tool.  At  least  the  small  pieces,  which  receive  the  corners  of 
the  frame,  should  be  made  of  hard  wood  such  as  maple.  It  is  self- 
adjusting  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  buckle  the  parts  of  a  narrow 
frame  by  over  pressure.  It  is  well  to  soap  or  oil  the  corner  pieces  to 
prevent  their  being  glued  to  the  frame. 

In  gluing  together  long  mitered  joints,  in  six  or  eight  sided  tab- 
orets  or  columns,  in  which  the  members  meet  edgewise,  one  method  is 
to  wrap  a  few  turns  of  bale  wire  around  the  parts  and  drive  in 
wedges  under  the  wire  to  obtain  pressure,  Fig.  256.  Another  method 
is  to  wrap  a  stout  rope,  such 
as  is  used  for  window  weights, 
around  all  the  pieces,  properly 
set  up,  then  to  tighten  it  by 
twisting  it  with  a  stick  thru 
a  loop,  Fig.  257.  A  still  more 
effective  way  is  by  means  of 
the  Xoxall  Column  Clamp,  a 
powerful  device,  used  chiefly 
for  gluing  up  such  pieces  as  the 
pillar  of  a  centrally  supported 


table,  Fig.  259.  Care  must  be 
taken  with  all  these  devices  to 
protect  the  corners,  unless  they 
are  to  be  rounded  off  afterward. 
A  good  way  to  protect  them  is 
with  pieces  fastened  together  in 
the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  258,  b, 
and  Fig.  257,  the  interior  an- 
gle being  equal  to  the  exterior 
angle  of  the  piece  to  be  glued. 
In  the  case  of  a  taboret  with 

slender  legs,  care  must  be  taken  to  insert  blocks  between  the  separate 
legs  as  well,  to  brace  them  apart  and  to  keep  them  from  bending  un- 


Fig.  256.     Gluing- up  a  Column  Joint. 
(Pinch-Dogs  at  Top  of  Joints.) 


-12 


170 


HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 


der  the  pressure.  These  methods  have  the  advantage  that  they  are 
speedy,  since  all  the  pieces  go  together  at  once;  but  unless  the  pieces 
fit  exactly  the  joints  will  not  close. 

Another  method  is  to  glue  and  clamp  the  pieces  of  the  taboret  to- 
gether two  by  two,  using  blocks  as  shown  in  Fig.  258,  a.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  put  the  pressure  of  the  handscrews  as  far  out  as 
possible  so  as  to  be  sure  that  the  outside  of  the  joint  closes.  This 
method  has  the  advantage  that,  as  only  one  joint  is  glued  at  a  time, 
the  work  can  be  done  more  deliberately.  Moreover,  if  when  three 
pairs  of  a  six-sided  taboret  are  together,  the  other  three  joints  do  not 
fit  exactly,  they  can  then  be  refitted. 

Another  method  is  to  glue  pieces  of  soft  wood  on  the  exterior  of 
each  pieces  as  shown  in  Fig.  258,  c.    These  blocks  should  be  of  such 
shape  that  the  opposite  sides  of  each  pair  are  parallel.     When  the 
glue  is  dry,  they  are  used  as  corners  on  which  to  clamp  the  hand- 
screws.      This   method   has   the 
disadvantage    that    the    blocks 
may   break    loose    at   a   critical 
moment. 

In  addition  to  any  of  these 
methods  of  tightening  the 
joints,  to  make  sure  that  the 
ends  of  the  joints  close  tight, 
pinch-dogs,  Fig.  178,  p.  103, 
may  be  driven  into  the  end 
grain,  and  corrugated  fasten- 
ers, Fig.  228,  p.  125,  also  driven 
into  thp  ends,  make  the  joint 
quite  secure. 

No.  53.  A  doweled  miter. 
Fig.  268,  is  one  in  which  one 
or  more  dowels  are  inserted  and 
glued  into  holes  bored  into  the 

beveled  edges.  It  may  be  used  instead  of  nails,  as  in  large  picture  frames. 
No.  54-    A  spline  or  tongue  miter,  Fig.  268,  is  one  which  has  a 
spline  or  tongue  inserted  at  right  angles  to  the  joint.     Since  it  fur- 
nishes more  gluing  surface,  it  is  stronger  than  a  plain  miter. 

No.  55.  A  slip-feather  or  slip-key  miter,  Fig.  268,  is  one  which 
is  strengthened  by  a  slip  of  hardwood  glued  into  a  saw  kerf  cut  acros? 
the  mitered  angle.  It  is  used  in  picture-frames  and  in  boxes. 


Fig-.    257. 


One    Method    of  Gluing-    up  a 
Six-Sided  Taboret. 


THE    COMMON    JOINTS. 


171 


Fig-.  258.     Devices  for  Gluing  Beveled  Edges. 


No.  56.  A  slip-dovetail  miter,  Fig.  268,  is  one  in  which  a  trape- 
zoidal shaped  key  is  inserted  in  a  dovetail  socket  cut  straight 
across  the  miter.  When  dressed 
off,  it  gives  the  appearance  of 
a  dovetail  on  each  face.  It  is 
used  for  the  same  purpose  as  a 
spline  miter. 

No.  57.    A  double  dovetail 
keyed  miter,  Fig.  268,  is  one 
in  which  a  double  dovetail  key 
made  of  hard  wood  is  inlaid  across  the  joint.    This  is  a  favorite  joint 
with  Oriental  joiners. 

No.  58.  A  ledge  and  miter  or  lipped  miter  joint,  Fig.  268,  is 
made  by  rabbeting  and  mitering  the  boards  to  be  joined  so  that  the 

outer  portion  of  the  two  boards  meet  in  a 
miter.  It  is  strong  and  good  looking  and 
may  be  glued  or  nailed.  It  is  used  foi 
fine  boxes. 

No.  59.  A  stopped  miter,  Fig.  268, 
is  useful  for  joining  pieces  of  different 
widths,  when  both  sides  can  be  seen. 

No.   60.     A   double-tongue  miter,  Fig. 
268,  is  made  by  cutting  on  the  adjoining 
edges  tongues  which  engage  in  each  other. 
It  is  used  in  high  class  joinery,  on  mem- 
bers that  join  lengthwise  of  the  grain. 

No.  61.  A  stretcher  joint,  Fig.  268,  is  a  slip  joint  in  which  one 
or  both  sides  is  mitered.  It  is  used  in  frames  for  stretching  canvass 
for  paintings  by  driving  wedges  from  the  inside.  Two  forms  are 
shown  in  6 la  and  61b. 

Xo.  62.  A  strut  joint,  Fig.  268,  is  a  form  of  miter  joint  used  in 
making  trusses. 

No.  63  and  64-  A  thrust  joint  or  tie  joint  or  toe  joint,  Fig.  268, 
is  one  in  which  two  beams  meet  at  an  oblique  angle,  one  receiving  the 
thrust  of  the  other.  The  toe  may  be  either  square  as  in  63,  or  oblique 
as  in  64.  The  pieces  are  bolted  or  strapped  together  with  iron.  It 
is  used  for  the  batter  braces  of  bridges. 

No.  65.  A  plain  brace  joint,  Fig.  269,  is  one  in  which  the  brace 
is  simply  mitered  and  nailed  into  place.  It  is  used  for  bracket 
supports. 


Tig.  259.     Column-Clamp. 


172  HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 

No.  66.  A  housed  brace  joint,  Fig.  269,  is  a  joint  in  which  the 
brace  is  housed  into  the  rectangular  members  except  that  the  outer 
end  of  the  mortise  is  cut  at  right  angles  and  the  inner  end  diag- 
onally to  receive  the  brace  which  is  cut  to  correspond.  It  is  much 
stronger  than  65. 

No.  67.  An  oblique  mortise-and-tenon  or  bevel-shoulder  joint, 
Fig.  269,  is  one  in  which  the  shoulders  of  the  tenoned  beam  are  cut 
obliquely  and  its  end  is  cut  off  at  right  angles.  The  cheeks  of  the 
mortise  are  correspondingly  sunk.  By  these  means  the  tenon  pre- 
vents lateral  motion  while  the  whole  width  of  the  beam  presses  against 
the  abutment.  Thus  a  much  larger  bearing  surface  is  obtained.  The 
whole  is  bolted  or  strapped  together.  It  is  used  in  heavy  truss  work. 

No.  68.  A  bridle  joint,  Fig.  269,,  is  an  oblique  joint  in  which  a 
bridle  of  "tongue"  is  left  in  an  oblique  notch  cut  out  of  one  beam. 
Over  this  tongue  is  fitted  a  grooved  socket  cut  obliquely  in  the  other 
beam.  It  is  used  in  truss  construction. 

No.  69.  A  bird's  mouth  joint,  Fig.  269,  is  an  angular  notch  cut 
in  a  timber  to  allow  it  to  fit  snugly  over  the  member  on  which  it 
rests.  It  is  used  in  rafters  where  they  fit  over  the  p^ate. 

No.  70.  A  plain  or  rubbed  or  squeezed  or  glue  joint,  Fig.  269.  is 
one  in  which  the  edges  of  two  boards  are  glued  and  rubbed  together 
tight.  It  is  used  in  table-tops,  drawing-boards,  etc. 

To  make  this  joint,  first  the  boards  are  all  laid  down  flat,  side  by 
side,  and  arranged  in  the  proper  order.  Three  considerations  deter- 
mine what  this  order  is  to  be :  (1),  if  the  grain  is  of  prime  import- 
ance, as  in  quartered  oak,,  then  the  boards  are  arranged  so  as  to  give 
the  best  appearance  of  the  grain.  (2),  if  possible,  the  boards  should 
be  so  arranged  that  the  warping  of  each  board  shall  counteract  that 
of  the  adjacent  ones.  For  this  purpose  the  boards  are  so  laid  that 
the  annual  rings  of  one  shall  alternate  in  direction  with  the  annual 
rings  of  the  next,  Fig.  280,  a,  p.  188.  (3),  if  possible,  the  boards 
should  be  so  arranged  that  after  being  glued  together  they  can  a1!  be 
planed  smooth  in  the  same  direction.  When  the  above  requirements 
have  been  met  so  far  as  possible,  this  order  should  be  marked  on  ad- 
Joining  edges  for  later  identification.  The  edges  of  the  boards  to  be 
joined  should  be  finished  with  a  jointer. 

There  are  two  principal  methods  of  gluing  eclge-to-edge  joints, 
rubbing  and  squeezing.  In  a  rubbed  joint,  the  surfaces  to  be  joined 
should  be  p""aned  so  as  to  meet  tlmiout  exactly.  After  properly  plan- 


THE    COMMON    JOINTS. 


173 


Fig-.  260.    Applving 
Glue  for  an  Edge-to-Edge  Joint. 


ing  one  edge  of  each  board,  keep-one  board  in  the  vise,  jointed  edge 
up,  and  place  its  to-be  neighbor  in  position  upon  it.    Then  use  these 
four  tests  for  an  exact  fit.     (1)   Sight  down  the  end  to  see  that  the 
faces    lie    in    the    same    plane. 
(2)    Examine    the  crack    from 
both  sides.     Be  sure  that  both 
ends  touch.     Test  this  by  pu  1- 
ing    down    hard    on    one    end 
of  the  upper  board  and  noticing 
if  the  other  end  is  still  in  con- 
tact.     If  the  other    end   opens, 
swing    the    upper    board    hori- 
zontally on  the  lower  board    to 
see  where  the  high  place  is  and 
then    correct    it.       (3)     S.ee    if 

the  upper  board  stands  firmly  on  the  lower  board  by  feeling  gently 
to  see  if  it  rocks,  or  by  rapping  lightly  the  lower  board.  (4)  Slide 
the  top  board  slowly  on  the  lower  one  to  feel  if  it  adheres  or  "sucks." 
After  the  pieces  have  been  warmed,  which  should  be  done  if  pos- 
sible, the  glue  is  spread  on, them,  Fig.  260,  and  they  are  then  rubbed 

slowly  back  and  forth  in  the 
direction  of  the  grain,  pres- 
sure being  applied  by  the  hand 
and  care  being  taken  not  to 
open  the  joint  in  the  least. 
As  the  glue  sets,  the  rubbing 
becomes  more  difficult.  It 
should  be  stopped  when  the 
boards  are  in  their  proper 
relative  positions.  In  rub- 
bing together  the  edges  of 
two  boards,  handscrews  may 
be  fastened  to  one  in  such  a 
a  way  that  their  jaws  serve 
as  guides  for  the  other  board 

to  slide  between,  Fig.  261.     Care  must  be  taken  to  make  the  jaws  of 
the  handscrew  diverge  enough  not  to  pinch  the  upper  board. 

Another  method  is  to  clamp  a  spare  board  alongside  and  project- 
ing above  the  lower  board.    This  spare  board  acts  as  a  guide  against 


Fig-.  261. 
Rubbing  a  Glued  Joint. 


174 


HANDWORK  IN    WOOD. 


which  the  upper  board  can  be  pushed  as  it  is  rubbed  back  and  forth. 
The  rubbed  joint  is  especially  suitable  for  short  boards. 

In  joining  long  boards,  a  squeezed  joint  is  common.  In  this  case, 
the  edges  are  planed  so  as  to  be  very  slightly  concave  from  end  to  end. 
The  object  of  this  is  to  counteract  the  subsequent  shrinkage  which  is 
likely  to  take  place  at  the  ends  of  the  boards  before  it  does  at  the 
middle.  The  pressure  of  the  clamps  may  be  depended  upon  to  close 
up  the  middle,  and,  especially  if  dowels  are  inserted,  as  in  No.  75,  the 
joint  will  be  strong  enough  to  resist  the  elasticity  of  the  boards. 

When  the  fit  is  good,  warm  the  wood  if  possible,  prepare  the 
clamps,  put  a  thin  film  of  glue  over  both  edges  which  are  to  be  to- 
gether, apply  the  clamps  rapidly,  keeping  the  faces  flush,  and  set 
away  to  dry  for  at  least  six  hours.  Then  another  piece  may  be  added 
in  the  same  manner.  If  the  boards  are  thin  and  wide,  and  therefore 
likely  to  buckle,  they  may  first  be  handscrewed  to  cross-strips  to  pre- 
vent their  buckling.  The  cross-strips  are,  of  course,  slightly  shorter 
than  the  combined  width  of  the  boards  so  that  the  full  pressure  of 
the  clamps  may  come  on  the  glued  joint. 

No.  71.  A  rebated,  rabbeted  or  fillister ed  joint,  Fig.  269.  Kebat- 
ing  is  the  cutting  of  a  rectangular  slip  out  of  the  side  of  a  piece  of 
wood.  The  re-entering  angle  left  upon  the  wood  is  called  the  rebate 
or  rabbet.  A  rebated  joint,  then,  is  one  in  which  corresponding  re- 
bates are  taken  off  edges  so  that 


the  joined  boards  may  overlap. 
It  is  used  in  flooring  and  sid- 
ing. 

A  board  is  rebated  and  fil- 
leted when  two  adjoining  re- 
bates are  filled  with  a  fillet. 

No.  72.  A  matched  or 
tongue-and-groove  joint,  Fig. 
269,  is  made  by  making  a  pro- 
jection or  '"'tongue"  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  edge  of  one  board, 

and  a  corresponding  groove  in  the  center  of  the  other  so  that  thc\ 
will  match  together.  When  used  for  flooring,  the  lower  side  of  the 
grooved  board  is  slightly  rebated  so  that  the  upper  edges  will  surely 
touch.  This  sort  of  flooring  can  be  blind-nailed. 


Fig-.  262.     Edg-e-to-Edg-e  Joint,  Doweled. 


THE    COMMON    JOINTS. 


175 


No.  73.  A  leaded  joint,  Fig.  269,  is  similar  to  a  matched  joint 
except  that  a  bead  is  worked  on  one  edge  to  disguise  the  joint  for 
decorative  purposes. 

No.  74-  A.  spline-joint,  Fig.  269,  is  made  by  plowing  correspond- 
ing grooves  in  the  edges  to  be  joined  and  inserting  a  spline  or  slip- 
feather.  It  is  used  in  plank  flooring. 

nVo.  75.  A  doweled  joint,  Fig.  269,  is  made  by  jointing  the  two 
edges  carefully,  boring  holes  opposite  each  other  and  inserting  dowel 
pins  when  the  two  edges  are  glued  together.  It  is  used  in  table 
tops,  etc. 

Where  the  boards  are  thick  enough  to  allow  it,  a  squeezed  joint 
is  greatly  strengthened  by  the  insertion  of  dowels. 

The  essential  point  in  inserting  dowels  is  to  have  the  holes  for 
them  directly  opposite  one  another  and  at  right  angles  to  the  surface. 
The  following  is  a  convenient  method 
where  boards  are  to  be  joined  edge  to 
edge,  Fig.  262.  Place  the  two  boards 
back  to  back  in  the  vise  with  the  edges 
and  ends  flush.  Determine  approxi- 
mately where  the  dowels  are  to  be  in- 
serted. With  the  gage,  mark  short  lines 
at  the  points  of  insertion  in  the  center 
of  each  edge,  gaging  from  the  outside 
faces.  Across  these  lines  score  accu- 
rately with  a  try-square  and  knife. 
Then  bore  the  holes  with  a  dowel-bit  at 
the  intersection  of  the  lines,  Fig.  263. 
If  this  is  carefully  done,  the  holes  will 
be  directly  opposite  one  another,  and 
equidistant  from  the  faces  of  both 
boards.  All  the  holes  should  be  of 
equal  depth,  say  1",  in  order  that  the 
dowel-pins,  which  should  also  be  cut  of 

equal  lengths,  may  be  interchangeable.  After  boring,  the  holes  may 
be  slightly  countersunk  in  order  to  insure  a  tight  joint  and  the  easy 
slipping  of  the  pins  into  place.  The  latter  result  may  also  be  ob- 
tained by  slightly  pointing  the  pins  with  a  dowel-pointer,  Fig.  123, 
p.  83.  It  is  also  a  wise  precaution  to  cut  a  small  groove  along  the 


Fig.  263.    Bonne  for  Dowels  in 
an  Edge-to-Edge  Joint. 


176  HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 

length  of  the  pin  to  allow  superfluous  glue  to  escape  from  the  hole. 
The  dowel  should  be  dipped  in  glue  and  inserted  when  the  glue  is 
applied  to  the  joint. 


THE   COMMON  JOINTS 
REFERENCES : * 

Rivington,   Vol.   I,  pp.  57-77,               Barter,  pp.   211-275. 

135-137,      238-242;  Vol. 

II,  pp.   291-295.  Selden,   pp.   56-130. 

Adams,  pp.   1-30.  Building  Trades  Pocketbook,  pp.  217 

Sickels,  pp.   86-124.  221,  237. 

Goss,  pp.  128-152.  Griffith,   pp.    86-104,    164-170. 
Ellis,  pp.   135-151. 


*For  general  bibliography,  see  p.  4. 


THE   COMMON   JOINTS. 


177 


1   Lapped  and  Snapped 


Z   fished 


3    fished    and    Keyed 


4-    Spliced     for     compression 


Spliced     for    tension 


6    Spliced    and    Tabled 


Fig.  264. 


178 


HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 


Fig.  265. 


THE   COMMON   JOINTS. 


179 


34      Wedged  morfoe- ana-Tenon 


J6    rot-Tail  Tenon 


Dovetail    morTisc-and-Tcnon 
Fig.  266. 


180 


HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 


47 


Bare-faced  ten.on       flousea    mortise-and-tenon         46  J)///?  Thru   single  dovetail 


Thru     main  pie     dovetail 


Lap  dovetail         Stopped  lap  dovetail       51    blind   dovetail 
Fig.  267. 


THE   COMMON   JOINTS. 


181 


fitter 


JJ 
51 1 p- feather  miter 


56 
Slip-dovetail  miter 


57 


Double   dovetail   Keyed     Ledge    and    miter 


Stepped     mtcr  Double -tortgue  miter 


Square     thrust 


64     Otiquc   thrust 


Fig.  268. 


182 


HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 


74    Spline 


75     Doweled 


Fig-.  269. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
TYPES  OF  WOODEN  STRUCTURES. 

The  articles  suitable  to  be  made  in  wood  with  hand  tools  may  for 
convenience  be  divided  into  four  general  classes:  (1)  Unjoined 
pieces;  (2)  board  structures;  (3)  panel  structures;  (4)  framed 
structures.  A  few  illustrations  of  each  class  are  given  below. 

(1)     SIMPLE    OR    UN  JOINED    PIECES 

Of  these  there  are  a  number  that  are  advantageous  for  the  learn- 
ing of  tool  processes;  at  the  same  time  they  give  opportunity  for 
expression  in  design,  and  when  finished  are  of  use. 

Examples  are :  key-boards,  chiseling-boards,  bread-boards,  sleeve- 
boards,  ironing-boards,  coat-  and  skirt-hangers,  and  gouged  trays. 
Some  of  these  are  so  simple  as  to  include  hardly  any  process  but 
planing,  directions  for  which  are  given  above,  p.  72. 

Where  there  is  more 
than  one  process  involved, 
the  order  of  procedure  is 
of  importance.  In  gen- 
eral, a  safe  rule  to  follow 
in  each  case  is  to  plane  up 
the  piece  true  and  square, 
or,  in  technical  language, 

Fig-.  270.    Pen-Tray.  to    "true"    it   Up.       At   least 

as    many    of    its    surfaces 

should  be  trued  as  are  necessary  for  the  "lay  out."  Where  the  piece 
is  to  be  rectangular  all  the  surfaces  should  be  true;  where  some  of 
the  surfaces  are  to  be  curved  it  is  unnecessary  and  a  waste  of  time 
to  square  them  first.  For  example,  in  making  a  gouged  tray  with 
curved  outline,  Fig.  270,  the  working,  face,  the  working  edge,  and 
the  thickness  should  all  be  true  before  the  plan  is  laid  out.  Then, 
after  the  outline  is  drawn,  the  trough  may  be  gouged,  the  outline  cut 
with  turning-saw,  chisel,  and  spokeshave,  and  the  edges  molded  with 
the  gouge  or  chisel.  If  there  is  incised  decoration  it  should  be  cut 

183 


184 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


Chamfer        Bevel 


Fig-.  271.     Difference  Between 
Chamfer  and  Bevel. 


before  the  molding  is  cut,  so  that  while  being  incised,  the  piece  will 
lie  flat  without  tipping. 

These  simple  pieces,  as  well  as  others,  are  often  embellished  by 
chamfering.  A  chamfer  is  a  surface 
produced  by  cutting  away  an  arris.  It 
differs  from  a  bevel  in  that  a  bevel  in- 
clines all  the  way  to  the  next  arris, 
while  a  chamfer  makes  a  new  arris, 
Fig.  271.  A  thru  chamfer  extends  the 
whole  length  or  width  of  a  piece,  while 
a  stop  chamfer  extends  only  part  way. 
For  the  laying  out  of  a  chamfer  see 
p.  115. 

Thru  chamfering  is  best  done  with  a  plane,  Fig.  272.  For  this 
purpose  the  piece  may  be  held  in  the  bench-vise  and  the  plane  tipped 
to  the  proper  angle,  or  the  piece  may  be  held  in  a  handscrew  which 
in  turn  is  held  in  the  vise  as  in  Fig.  175,  p.  102.  The  chamfers  with 
the  grain  should  be  planed  before  those  across  the  grain. 

In  chamfering  a  four-square  stick  into  an  eight-square,  the  piece 
may  be  gripped  in  the  vise  diagonally,  Fig.  273,  or  it  may  be  held  in 
a  trough  made  of  two  strips  of  wood  from  each  of  which  an  arris  has 

been  chamfered  and  then  the 
two  nailed  together,  Fig.  274. 
A  dowel  or  nail  may  be  in- 
serted in  the  trough  for  a  stop. 
Stop  chamfers  are  pared  best 
with  a  chisel,  Fig.  275,  held 
according  to  convenience  either 
flat  side  or  bevel  side  up.  See 
under  chisel,  p.  53. 


(2)     BOARD  STRUCTURES. 


Fig-.  272.     Thru  Chamfering-. 


These    include    such    pieces 
as  wa'l  brackets,  sets  of  shelves, 

book-racks,  plate-racks,  drawing-boards,  foot-stools,  taborets,  and  boxes. 
The  advantage  of  this  form  of  construction  is  that  it  is  compara- 
tively easy  to  make;  the  disadvantage  is  that  if  the  boards  are  wide, 
they  are  sure  to  shrink  and  swell.  It  is  wise  in  all  such  work  to  true 
and  smooth  up  all  the  pieces  at  once,  and  if  the  wood  is  not  thoroly 


TYPES  OF  WOODEN  STRUCTURES. 


185 


Fig-.  273. 

Piece  Held  in  Vise 
to  Chamfer. 


seasoned,  to  keep  the  boards  under  pressure  till  they  are  assembled. 

In  the  case  of  several  boards  to  be  jointed  into  one  piece,  they  should 

be    glued    together    before    the    surfaces    are 

smoothed.     Suggestions  regarding  a  few  typ- 
ical pieces  follow : 

Watt  Brackets.     (1)  There  are  three  essen- 
tial parts,  the  shelf,  the  support  or  supports, 

and  the  back:    the  shelf  to  hold  the  articles, 

the  support  to  hold  up  the  shelf,  and  the  back 

to  hold  all  together,  Fig.  276,  a.    The  grain  of 

the  wood  in  the  shelf  should  run  left  and  right,  not  forward  and  back, 

because  thus  it  rests  on  the  support  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  break 

easily,  and  it  also  acts  as  a  stiffener  for 
the  back.  In  case  the  back  extends  above 
the  shelf,  as  in  Fig.  276,  a,  the  shelf  can 
be  secured  firmly  to  the  back,  since  there 
is  side  grain  in  which  to  drive  nails  or 
screws.  As  to  the  direction  of  the  grain 
of  the  support  and  the  back,  this  should 
run  in  the  direction  of  the  largest  di- 
mension of  each.  Where  the  back  is 
long  horizontally,  for  security  in  hang- 
ing, it  is  better  to  have  two  supports." 

Wall  book-shelves,  Fig.  277,  plate-racks,  etc.,  are  simply  com- 
pound brackets.     The  shelf  is  the  essential  piece,  the  sides  take  the 

place  of  the  supports,  and  the 

back  is  often  reduced  to  strips 

merely    wide    enough    to    give 

rigidity. 

The  shelves  may  be  either 

gained  into  the  supports,   Fig. 

266,  No.  28  or  No.  29,  p.  179, 

or    a    keyed    mortise-and-tenon 

may  be  used,  Fig.  277.    In  the 

latter  case  the  back  strip  may 

have    a    short    barefaced    blind 

tenon    which    is    mortised    into  Fig.  275.   stop  chamfering-. 

10  See  the  School  Arts  Book  for  Nov.,  1906,  "Design  in  the  Woodworking 
Class,"  by  Anna  and  William  Noyes. 


Fig-.  274.    Trough  for  Planing 
Chamfers. 


—13 


186 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


the  upright,  Fig.  278.  It  also  fits  into  a  rabbet  on  the  upper  back 
side  of  the  shelf.  Made  in  this  way  the  shelves  can  be  knocked  down 
easily. 

Foot  Stool  or  Cricket,  Fig. 
279.  The  grain  of  the  supports 
should  run  up  and  down,  be- 
cause pieces  with  the  grain  hor- 
izontal would  be  likely  to  break 
under  pressure.  Braces  or  a 
rail  give  additional  support. 
The  top  should  not  be  larger 
than  the  base  of  the  legs;  oth- 
erwise a  person  standing  care- 
lessly on  the  stool  is  in  danger 
of  being  upset. 

A  Drawing -Board  is  made 
up  of  narrow  boards,  with  glued 
joints,  with  the  boards  so  laid 
that  the  annual  rings  will  al- 
ternate in  direction,  Fig.  280,  a. 


Fig.  276.     Wall  Brackets,  Double-Hung: 
a.  Single  Support,     b.  Double  Support. 

It  must  be  made  so  that  it  can 
shrink  and  swell  and  yet  remain  flat.     For  the  purpose  of  giving 
lateral  stiffness  cleats  are  added.     They  may  simply  be  screwed  on 
the  underside,  the  screw  holes  being  large  enough  to  allow  for  shrink- 
age, or  they  may  be  dadoed  in 
with  a  dovetail  dado,  Fig.  280, 
1),   or  they  may  be  grooved  to 
admit  a  tongue  on  the  end  of 
a  board,  Fig.   280,  c.     In  this 
case  screws   passing  thru  large 
holes   in   the   cleats   hold   them 
in  place. 

Taborets.  The  term  taboret 
originally  meant  a  little  tabor 
or  drum,  and  was  therefore 


Fig.  277.    Wall  Book-Case. 


used  to  designate  a  small  stool, 
the  seat  of  which  consisted  of 
a  piece  of  stretched  leather. 

The  term  now  includes  small,  tablelike  structures  for  holding  flower- 
pots, vases,  etc.     It  might  more  properly  be  called  a  "table-ette." 


TYPES  OF  WOODEN  STRUCTURES. 


187 


When  made  up  with  boards  having  their  long  edges  mitered,  it 
has  from  four  to  eight  sides.  A  six-sided  one  is  shown  in  Fig.  281. 
In  making,  it  is  best  to  fit  the  joints  exactly  first,  while  the  board  is 

stiff,  and  then  to  cut 
out  the  pattern  of  the 
legs.  Directions  for  glu- 
ing are  given  on  p.  169. 
Scrap-boxes,  Fig.  282, 
ana  flower-pot  boxes 
may  be  made  with  the 
same  construction. 

Rectangular  Boxes. 
There  are  various  meth- 
ods of  joining  their 
sides.  The  butt  joint, 
Fig.  264,  No.  11,  p. 
177,  is  plain,  simple, 
and  good  for  coarse 
work.  This  joint  may 
be  reinforced  as  in 
packing  boxes,  Fig. 
283. 

Mitered  joints,  Fig.  268,  No.  52,  p.  181,  are  neat  but  weak,  unless 
reinforced  by  a  spline,  Fig.  268,  No.  54. 

The  rabbet  or  ledge  joint,  Fig.  266,  No.  24,  p.  179,  is  both  strong 
and  neat.  It  can  be  glued  and  also  nailed  if  desired. 

The  rabbet  and  dado  joint,  Fig.  266,  No.  26,  can  be  glued  with- 
out nails  and  is  good  for  small  boxes. 

The  housed  dado,  Fig.  266,  No.  25,  is  good  for  water-tight  boxes. 
The  mitered  ledge,  Fig.  268,  No.  58,  makes  a  very  neat,  strong 
joint  which  can  be  nailed  or  glued,  but  is 
more  difficult  to  fit  than  a  simpler  joint. 
The  dovetail  joint,  Fig.  267,  No.  48, 
is  very  strong  and  honest,  but  the  joint 
is  prominent  from  the   outside   and   it 
takes   much   time   and   labor  to   make. 
It  is  glued. 

The   blind   dovetail,   Fig.    267,   No. 
51,   is   very  neat   and   strong,   and  the 


Fig.  278. 


Construction  of  a  Knock-Down   Book-Shelf 
Seen  From  the  Back. 


Fig-.  279.    Cricket. 


188 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


ft 


Fig".  280.     Drawing-Board  Construction: 

a.  With  Cleats  Screwed  on  Beneath; 

b.  With  Cleats  Dovetail-Dadoed  in; 

c.  With  Cleats  Matched  on  Ends. 


joint  is  entirely  concealed  when  done,  but  is  very  difficult  to  make. 
The  Bottoms  of  Boxes.     The  plain  or  full  bottom,  Fig.  284,  A, 

is  likely  to  shrink  (see  dotted  line),  and  it  is  held  in  place  only  by 

the  friction  of  the  nails.     The 

extended  bottom,   Fig.   284,   B, 

overcomes      the      objection     to 

shrinkage  and  adds  a  decorative 

feature.     The    bottom    may    be 

set   in,   Fig.    284,    C.     This   is 

stronger  than  the  plain  bottom, 

but  the  nail  holes  show.     The 

bottom    may    be    rabbeted    in, 

Fig.    284,    D.      This    is    better 

than  the  set-in  bottom  so  far  as 

the  showing  of  the  nail  holes  goes,  for  the  nails  may  be  driven  in 

from  below,  and  a  little  shrinkage  is  not  conspicuous.     It  is  practi- 
cable, if  a  rabbet  or  mitered  joint  is  used  in  the  sides,  but  if  the  side 

pieces  are  butted  or  dadoed,  the  rabbet  for  the  bottom  shows.     This 

may  be  cleverly  concealed  by 
an  insert,  but  that  is  patch- 
work, and  not  first-rate  con- 
struction. 

Reinforced  bottom,  Fig. 
284,  E.  A  plain  or  full  bottom 
is  sometimes  covered  by  a  base 
or  cover  strip  to  hide  the  joint 
and  secure  the  bottom,  as  in 
"  tool  chests.  This  strip  may 
be  mitered  at  the  corners. 

The  Lids  of  Boxes.  The 
simplest  form  is  a  full  flat 
cover,  Fig.  285,  A,  which  may 
be  nailed  'or  screwed  to  the 
box,  as  in  packing  cases.  The 
cover  may  slide  into  a  groove, 
Fig.  285,  B,  along  the  sides 

and  into  one  end,  the  other  end  being  lowered  to  admit  it.     The 
cover  ma£  have  cleats  on  its  underside,  Fig.  285,  E,  which  fit  just 

inside  the  box  and  keep  the  top  in  place.    The  cleats  also  prevent  the 


Fig-.  281.     Taboret. 


TYPES  OF  WOODEN  STRUCTURES. 


189 


Fig-.  282.     Scrap-Box. 


top  from  warping.     This  is  a  common  Japanese  construction,  even 

in  fine  boxes.    The  Japanese  tie  the  top  on  with  a  tape  or  ribbon. 
The  lid  may  be  boxed,  Fig.  285,  D,  that  is,  portions  of  the  sides 

may  be  affixed  to  the  top.     These  extra 

pieces  are  a  help  to  stiffen  the  top  and 

to  keep  it  from  warping.     A  boxed  top 

may  have  the  top  board  flush  with  the 

sides,  Fig.  285,  E.    The  disadvantage  of 

this  is  that  the  top  may  shrink  and  part 

from  the  sides  and  give  a  bad  appear- 
ance.   The  overlapping  top,  Fig.  285,  F, 

obviates  this  trouble   of  shrinkage  and 

adds  a  decorative  element.     In  this  case 

the  top  may  be   glued  on   or  screwed 

from  below  thru  the  side  strips. 

The   top   may   be   mitered   into   the 

sides,  Fig.  285,  G.    The  shrinkage  trou- 
ble  still    obtains   here.      Otherwise   the 

appearance  is  excellent.    The  top  may  be  paneled  into  the  sides,  Fig. 

285,  H.    This  has  a  good  appearance  if  the  sides  are  mitered  or  ledged 

but  not  if  the  sides  are  butted  or  dadoed,  because  then  the  groove  for 

the  top  shows. 

Any  of  these  lids  may  be  made  removable  or  hinged,  except  the 

sliding  top.    For  methods  of  hinging  see  p.  132. 

In  gluing  boxes  together,  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  glue  the  ends 
and  sides  together  first  and  to 
let  these  joints  dry  before 
gluing  on  the  bottom  and,  in 
the  case  of  a  boxed  top,  Fig. 
285,  D,  the  top.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  see  that  the  sides  do 
not  bow  under  the  pressure. 
To  prevent  this,  one  or  more 
false,  temporary  partitions  as 


Fig.  283.     Reinforced  Butt  Joint  in  Box.  £,    B,    in     Fig.     286,    of    exactly 

the    length    to    keep    ^ie    sides 

straight,  may  be  inserted.     In  gluing  together  boxes  with  rabbeted 
joints,  Fig.  285,  H,  pressure  should  be  applied  in  both  direction?. 


190 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


In  gluing  on  the  bottom  of  a  box  that  is  also  to  be  nailed,  the  nails 
should  be  driven  into  the  bottom  first,  so  that  the  points  just  come 
thru.  These  points  sticking  into  the  sides  will  prevent  the  bottom 
from  slipping  when  pressure  is  applied.  It  is  often  undesirable  to 


Fig-.  284.     Methods  of  Attaching-  Box  Bottoms. 

have  nail  heads  show,  as  in  a  top.  In  such  a  case,  and  also  to  pre- 
vent the  top  from  slipping  under  pressure,  a  couple  of  small  brads 
may  be  driven  part  way  into  the  upper  edges  of  the  sides,  the  heads  bit- 
ten off  with  the  nippers,  and  points  filed  on  the  projecting  portion. 

Drawers.  In  the  best  form,  the  sides  are  dovetailed  to  the  front 
for  strength,  Fig.  287,  for  whenever  the  drawer  is  opened  the  front 
tends  to  pull  away  from  the  sides.  This  dovetail  is  half  blind,  so 
that  the  joint  will  not  appear  when  the  drawer  is  shut.  In  order  that 
the  drawer  may  always  run  freely  and  yet  the  front  fit  the  opening  as 


Fig1.  285.     Forms  of  Box  Construction. 


close  as  possible,  it  is  common  practice  to  cut  a  shallow  rabbet  on 
the  ends  of  the  front,  so  that  the  body  of  the  drawer  is  a  little  nar- 
rower than  the  front  is  long,  Fig.  287.  Or  the  front  may  be  attached 


TYPES  OF  WOODEN  STRUCTURES. 


191 


to  the  sides  with  a  dado  tongue  and  rabbet  joint,  Fig.  266,  No. 

27,  p.  179. 

The  bottom  is  grooved  into  the  sides  with  ij;s  grain  parallel  to 
the  front  and  fastened  only  to  the  front  so  that  it  has  plenty  of  play 
for  shrinkage.     The  back  is   dadoed  into  the  sides,  with  either  a 
straight    dado, 
Fig.   266,    No. 
25,  p.   179,    or 
dovetail    dado, 
Fig.    266,    No. 

28,  and    rests 
on  the  bottom. 
The    extension 
of   the  bottom 
beyond       the 
back  allows  am- 
ple   room    for 

shrinkage.  Fi^  286'  Gluing  T°*ether  a  Box" 

The  best  machine-made  drawers  are  now  made  with  the  bottom 
paneled  or  dadoed  in  all  around  so  that  papers  cannot  slip  out.  The 
back,  as  well  as  the  front,  is  dovetailed. 

Directions  for  Making  a  Table  Drawer.  Dress  the  front  and  sides 
to  size.  Fit  the  front  of  the  drawer  to  its  place  in  the  table  or  cabinet, 
leaving  a  little  play  all  around  it.  Plow  the  groove  in  the  front  and  sides 
for  the  drawer  bottom.  For  ordinary  drawers,  a  groove  }4"  wide  *s 

proper.  If  the  ends 
of  the  front  are  to  be 
rabbeted  (see  above), 
do  this  next.  The 
sides  are  best  joined 
to  the  front  with  the 
half-blind  dovetail 
joint.  (For  directions 
see  p.  166).  After 
fitting  these,  lay  out 
and  cut  the  dadoes  for 
the  back  of  the  drawer. 
Prepare  the  bottom  of 

Fig.  287.    Dovetailed  Drawer  Construction.  the    drawer    thus  '.     the 


192 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


1 

T    f 

n 

r    Is 

1    K 

L" 

B 

^        L:: 

Fig-.  288.  Door,  Illustrating  Panel 
Construction:  S.  Stile;  T.  R.  Top  Kail; 
L.  R.  Lock  Rail;  B.  R.  Bottom  Rail; 
M.  Muntin;  P.  Panel;  A.  Double  Mortise- 
and-Tenon;  F.  Fillet;  A.  B.C.  Forms  of 
Panels. 


grain  should  run  right  and 
left,  never  front  and  back.  If 
the  drawer  is  so  long  as  to  re- 
quire it,  glue-joint  the  bot- 
tom, and  fit  it  snugly  to  place. 
There  need  be  no  play  right 
and  left,  and  the  bottom  should 
extend  as  far  back  as  the  sides. 
If  necessary,  bevel  the  under 
side  to  fit  the  grooves.  Assem- 
ble all  the  parts  to  see  that  they 
fit,  take  them  apart,  glue  the 
sides  to  the  front  and  back, 
slip  the  bottom  into  place,  ap- 
ply the  clamps,  and  see  to  it 
that  all  joints  are  square,  using 
a  diagonal  brace  if  necessary, 
Fig.  294.  Fasten  the  bottom  to  the  front  by  means  of  a  thin  block 
glued  into  the  interior  angle  between  the  under  side  of  the  bottom 
and  the  back  side  of  the  front.  When  dry,  clean  up  the  drawer  and 
fit  it  to  its  place. 

(3)    PANEL   STRUCTURES 

These  include  doors  and  cabinets  of  all  sorts.     The  principle  of 
panel  or  cabinet  construction  is  that  there  shall  be  a  frame  composed 
of  narrow  members  whose  grain  follows  the  principal   dimensions. 
In  the  best  construction  this  frame  is  mortised  and  tenoned  together 
and  within  this  frame  there  is  set  a  thin  board  or 
panel  which  is  free  to  shrink  or  swell  but  is  pre- 
vented   from    warping   by   the   stiffer   frame.      The 
object  is  to  cover  an  extended  surface  in  such  a  way 
that  the  general   dimensions   and   good   appearance 
will  not  be  affected  by  whatever  shrinkage  there  is. 
Since  the  frame  itself  is  made  up  of  narrow  pieces, 
there  is  but  little  shrinkage  in  them.     That  shrink- 
age is  all  that  affects  the  size  of  the  whole  structure, 
because    wood    does    not    shrink   longitudinally   to    any    appreciable 
extent.*1     The  shrinking  or  swelling  of  the  panel   does   not  affect 
the   general   size.     The   cross   construction   of   the   frame   also   pre- 

*See  the  author's  Wood  and  Forest,  p.    41    (Chapter  II,    on  Shrinkage). 


.  289. 

The  Way  a  Mit- 

ered  Joint  Opens 

on  Account  of 

Shrinkage. 


TYPES  OF  WOODEN  STRUCTURES. 


lit:', 


Fig.  290.    Chest  Construction. 


vents  warping,  since,  in  the 
best  construction  every  joint  is 
mortised  and  tenoned.  The 
panel  may  simply  be  fastened 
on  the  back  of  the  frame,  but  a 
better  construction  is  to  insert 
it  in  a  groove  made  in  the  in- 
side of  the  frame  in  which  the 
panel  is  to  lie  and  have  free 
play.  The  panel  may  be  made 
of  one  board  or  of  matched 
boards,  may  be  plain  or  have 
raised  or  carved  surfaces,  or  be 

of  glass;  and  the  joints  between  frame  and  panel  may  be  embellished 

with  moldings  mitered  in,  but  the  principle  is  the  same  in  all  cases. 

The  frame  of  a  door,  Fig.  288,  il- 
lustrates the  panel  construction.     The 

upright,  outside  pieces   are   called   the 

"stiles,"  the  horizontal  pieces  the  "rails." 

There  are  also  the  "top-rail,"  the  "bot- 
tom-rail,"   the   "lock-rail"    (where   the 

door-knob  and  lock  are  inserted),  and 

sometimes  the  "frieze-rail"  between  the 

lock  rail  and  the  top  rail.     The  "mun- 

tin"    is    the   upright   between   the   two 

stiles. 

The    joint    commonly    used    is    the 

haunched      or     relished     mortise-and- 

tenon,  Fig.  267,  No.  42,  p.  180;     (See 

p.  163  for  directions  for  making).    The 

tenon  is  sometimes  doubled,  Fig.  288, 

and  a  fillet  (f)  may  be  inserted  to  cover 

the  ends  of  the  tenons,  or  the  joint  may 

be  a  blind  mortise-and-tenon,  Fig.  266, 

No.  32,  or  in  cheap  construction,  dowels 

may  be  used.    The  best  doors  are  now 

made  with  cores  of  pine  covered  on  the 

visible  sides  with  heavy  veneer.     Large 

surfaces  are  covered  by  increasing  the 


Fitf.  291.  A.  Cross-Section  Thru 
Back  Left  Leg  and  Adjoining 
Rails  of  Table.  (Plan).  B.  Ele- 
vation, Showing  Wide  Shoulder 
on  Tenon  of  Rail. 


194 


HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 


Fig-.  292.  Table  Construction:  Upper  Drawer 

Rail  of  Table  Dovetailed  into 

Left  Front  Leg-. 


number    of    parts    rather    than 
their  size,  as  in  wainscoting. 

Picture-frames  also  belong 
in  this  class  of  structures,  the 
glass  taking  the  place  of  the 
panel.  They  are  made  with 
mortise-and-tenon  joints,  Fig. 

266,  No.    33,   slip   joints,   Fig. 

267,  No.     46,     dowelled     butt 
joints,  Fig.  264,  No.  8,  end  lap 
joints,   Fig.   265,   No.    17,  and, 
far    more    commonly,    mitered 
joints,  Fig.  268,  No.   52.     Mi- 
tered joints   are  the   easiest  to 
make,  for  the  joints  can  be  cut 

in  a  miter-box,  Fig.  181,  p.  104,  and  glued  in  a  picture-frame-vise 
Fig.  172,  p.  101.  This  joint  needs  reinforcement  by  nails,  Fig.  268, 
No.  52,  by  dowels,  No.  53,  or  by  splines,  No.  55.  If  the  sides  are  of 
different  widths,  the  fitting  of  the  joint  is  more  difficult.  Mitered 
joints  are  the  only  kind  suitable  for  molded  frames.  The  rabbets 
are  cut  out  with  a  rabbeting-plane  before  mitering  and  assembling. 

The  principle  disadvantage  of  a  mitered  joint  is  that,  if  the  wood 
shrinks  at   all,  it  opens  at  the 
inside  corners,  as  in  Fig.  289, 
because   wood   shrinks   sidewise 
but  not  lengthwise. 

In  window  sashes,  the  dove- 
tail joint,  Fig.  267,  No.  47,  is 
the  common  one  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  lower  sash  and  the 
lower  end  of  the  upper  sash, 
and  the  mortise-and-tenon  joint 
modified  is  used  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  lower  and  upper  end 
of  the  upper  sash.  The  glass 
takes  the  place  of  the  panel. 
In  blind  sashes,  the  pinned 
mortise-and-tenon  joint,  Fig. 
267,  No.  38,  is  commonly  used. 


Fig-.  293.    The  Fixing-  of  a  Drawer  Rail, 
Seen  From  Below. 


TYPES  OF  WOODEN  STRUCTURES.  195 

When  panels  are  joined  together  to  enclose  a  space,  then  we  have 
what  is  properly  called  cabinet  construction.  Illustrations  are  cabi- 
riets,  bureaus,  desks,  lockers,  chests,  etc. 

In  all  these  cases,  the  constructed  panels  may  be  treated  as  sepa- 
rate boards  and  joined  together  with  dowel  pins  or  splines  or  dadoed 
together  without  any  other  framework,  tho  the  corners  are  often  re- 
inforced by  cleats  or  blocks  gluea  into 
them.       Sometimes,     however,     as     in 
chests,  Fig.  290,  posts  are  used  instead 
of  stiles,  and  rails  are  mortised  or  dow- 
eled into  them  and  the  panels  set  into 
grooves  in  both  posts  and  rails.    In  this 
case  the  bottom  is  raised  from  the  floor, 
and   may   be    dadoed   into   the   bottom       Fig.  294.  Brace  to  insure  Right 

.,  n          n     -i      •     i  Angles  in  Assembling  a 

rails,    or    do  welled   into   them   or   even  Framed  structure, 

supported  by  strips  attached  along  their 

lower  inside  edges.    The  chest  really  is  a  union  of  both  paneled  and 
framed  structures. 

(4)    FRAMED   STRUCTURES 

The  principle  of  the  framed  structure  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
panel  construction  in  that  the  object  is  to  allow  for  shrinkage  with- 
out harm  to  construction  and  also  to  economize  materials.  Common 
examples  are  tables,  chairs,  work-benches,  and  frame  houses. 

The  Making  of  a  Table.  The  standard  height  of  a  table  is  30". 
There  should  be  25"  clearance  under  the  rails.  This  leaves  approxi- 
mately 4"  for  the  width  of  the  rails.  Assuming  that  the  table  is  to 
be  of  a  simple  straight  line  type  with  one  drawer,  the  following 
method  of  procedure  is  suggested: 

Cut  the  boards  for  the  top  to  the  approximate  length  and  stick, 
{see  p.  47)  and  clamp  them,  so  as  to  season  them  as  well  as  pos- 
sible before  jointing. 

Dress  to  size  the  legs  and  rails.  Stand  the  legs  in  their  proper 
positions  relative  to  each  other,  and  mark  them  F  E  (front  right), 
F  L  (front  left),  B  E  (back  right),  and  B  L  (back  left).  Plow 
out  the  grooves  on  the  inside  of  the  rails  for  the  fastenings  of  the 
top,  Fig.  297,  D,  if  they  are  to  be  used.  Lay  out  and  cut  the  tenons 
and  mortises  for  the  end  rails  and  back  rail. 

The  proper  form  of  the  tenon  is  one  with  a  wide  shoulder  above 
it  so  that  the  top  of  the  leg  above  the  mortise  will  not  shear  out.  The 


196 


HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 


Fig.  295.     Drawer  Mecbanism. 


rails  should  be  set  near  the  outside  of  the  leg  so  that  the  tenon  may 
be  as  long  as  possible  and  the  portion  of  the  leg  inside  it  as  strong 
as  possible.  A  haunched  mortise-and-tenon  joint,  Fig.  267,  No.  43 
is  sometimes  used,  giving  additional  lateral  stiffness  to  the  rail.  The 

proper  proportions  are  shown  in  Fig. 
291.  When  cut,  these  parts  should  be 
temporarily  assembled  to  see  if  they  fit. 
Inasmuch  as  a  drawer  takes  the 
place  of  a  front  rail^  the  front  legs  must 
be  tied  together  in  some  other  way.  For 
this  purpose  two  stringers  or  drawer 
rails  may  be  used,  their  front  edges  be- 
ing as  far  from  the  face  of  the  legs  as 
are  the  rails  from  the  side  and  back. 
The  upper  drawer  rail  may  be  dove- 
tailed at  both  ends  into  th°  tops  of  the 
legs,  as  shown  in  Fig.  292.  If  this 
takes  more  room  than  can  well  be 

spared  from  the  depth  of  the  drawer,  it  may  be  omitted,  but  it  adds 
greatly  to  the  stiffness  of  the  table  and  is  an  excellent  means  of 
fastening  on  the  top  by  the  use  of  screws  passing  thru  it. 

The  drawer  rail,  also  called  the  fore  edge,  is  long  enough  to  partly 
overlap  the  side  rails,  into  the  lower  edges  of  which  it  is  gained  so 
as  to  be  flush  with  them,  and  may  be  fastened  to  them  with  screws, 
Fig.  293.  The  construction  may  be  further  strengthened  by  also 
doweling  the  end  of  this  stretcher  into  the  legs.  If  there  are  two 
drawers,  the  partition  between  them  may  be  doweled  or  gained  into 
these  upper  and  lower  stretchers. 

If  the  legs  are  to  be  tapered  or  otherwise  shaped,  that  should  be 
done  next.  Then  glue  and  assemble  the  end  rails  with  their  proper 
legs,  taking  care  to  see  not  only  that  the  joints  come  up  square,  but 
that  the  legs  are  in  the  same  plane.  Finally  assemble  the  whole,  in- 
serting, if  necessary,  a  temporary  diagonal  brace  to  insure  square- 
ness, Fig.  294.  When  dry,  clean  up  the  joints.  For  the  making  of  a 
table  drawer,  see  above,  p.  191. 

To  fit  the  drawer  to  its  place,  runners  and  guides,  Fig.  295,  must 
first  be  fastened  in.  The  runners  are  in  line  with  the  drawer  rail, 
and  are  glued  and  nailed  or  screwed  to  the  side  rails  between  the 
back  of  the  lower  stringer  and  the  back  posts.  On  top  of  them  and 


TYPES  OF  WOODEN  STRUCTURES. 


197 


Fig-.  2%.    Opening  for  Drawer  Cut  Out  of 
Front  Rail  of  Table. 


in  line  with  the  inner  face  of  the  legs  are  the  guides  running  between 
the  front  and  back  posts.  Or  the  runner  and  guide  may  be  made  of 
one  piece  properly  rabbeted  out. 

If  there  are  two  drawers,  a  double  runner  lies  between,  and  is 
gained"  into  the  middles  of  the 
back  rail  and  the  stringer,  and 
on  it  is  a  guide  for  both  draw- 
ers, equal  in  width  to  the  par- 
tition between  the  drawers.  The 
drawers  should  run  easily  in 
their  proper  places.  In  order 
to  insure  this,  the  drawer 

should  be  slightly  narrower  than  the  opening  which  receives  it.  A 
little  French  chalk,  rubbed  on  the  sides  and  runners,  makes  the  run- 
ning smoother.  Sometimes  the  opening  for  a  drawer  is  cut  out  of 
the  front  rail,  as  in  Fig.  296.  In  this  case  the  drawer  runners  are 
supported  between  the  front  and  back  rails,  into  which  they  may 
be  gained. 

For  the  making  of  the  table  top  see  edge-to-edge  joint,  p.  172. 
Dress  up  the  top  to  size,  taking  special  pains  with  the  upper  surface. 
If  the  grain  is  crossed,  use  the  veneer-scraper,  Fig.  151,  p.  92,  then 
sand,  first  with  No.  1,  then  with  No.  00  sandpaper,  finish  the  edges 
carefully,  and  attach  to  the  frame. 

For  fastening  the  top  to  the  table  rails,  several  methods  are  used. 
The  top  may  be  screwed  to  the  rails  by  the  screws  passing  thru  the 
rails  themselves  either  straight  up,  Fig,  297,  A,  or  diagonally  from 


1         i                 \      1      •-.                       It*.                 i        f          ;                 } 

hi 

" 

\ 

$T 

r 

[ill      A 

r> 

B 

c 

J 

r      & 

Fig-.  297.    Methods  of  Attaching  Table  Top  to  Rails. 

the  inside,  B,  or  thru  blocks  or  angle  irons,  C,  which  are  screwed 
to  the  inside  of  the  rails,  or  thru  buttons,  or  panel  irons,  D,  which 
are  free  to  move  in  a  groove  cut  near  the  top  of  the  rail.  The  last 


198 


HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 


method  is  the  best  because  it  allows  for  the  inevitable  shrinkage  and 
swelling  of  the  top. 

Chairs  may  be  so  simplified  in  form  as  to  be  possible  for  the  ama- 
teur to  construct.  The  two  front  legs  and  the  rail  and  stretcher  be- 
tween them  offer  little  difficulty  because  the  angles  are  square. 


Fig-.  298.    Chair  Construction. 

The  two  back  legs,  may,  for  the  purpose  of  simplification,  be  kept 
parallel  to  each  other  and  at  right  angles  to  the  seat  rails  between 
them,  as  in  Fig.  298,  A,  and  not  at  an  angle  as  in  B.  The  joining 
of  the  back  will  then  offer  little  difficulty.  The  principal  difficulties 
lie  in  the  facts  that  for  comfort  and  appearance  the  back  of  the  chair 
should  incline  backward  both  above  and  below  the  seat,  and  that  the 
back  of  the  seat  should  be  narrower  than  the  front.  By  keeping  at 
right  angles  to  the  floor  the  part  of  the  back  legs  which  receives  the 
seat  rail,  the  side  seat  rails  will  meet  the  back  legs  at  a  right  angle 
in  a  side  view,  Fig.  298.  The  back  legs  should  be  slightly  shorter 
than  the  front  legs,  as  shown  in  D. 

The  second  difficulty  involves  the  making  of  inclined  mortise-and- 
tenon  joints,  A,  where  the  side  rails  fit  into  the  legs.  The  making 


TYPES  OF  WOODEN  STRUCTURES. 


199 


Fig-.  299.    Bending  Boards  into 
Shape  after  Boiling-  Them. 


of  these  can  be  facilitated  by 
laying  out  a  plan  of  the  full 
size  and  taking  the  desired  an- 
gles directly  from  that.*  It  is 
common  to  reinforce  these 
joints  with  corner  blocks  glued 
and  screwed  in  place  as  shown 
in  A.  If  there  are  additional 
rails  below  the  seat  rails,  the 
easiest  way  to  fit  them  in 
place  is  first  to  fit  and  clamp 

together  the  chair  with  the  seat  rails  only,  taking  pains  to  have  all 
angles  perfectly  true,  and  then  to  take  the  exact  measurements  for 
the  lower  rails  directly  from  the  chair.  The  same  method  may  be 
used  for  laying  out  a  stringer  between  the  lower  rails. 

If  it  is  desired  to  bow  the  rails  of  the  back,  which  are  above  the 
seat  rail,  this  can  be  done  by  boiling  them  in  water  for  30  minutes 
and  then  clamping  them  over  a  form  of  the  proper  shape,  with  a 
piece  of  stiff  sheet  iron  on  the  outside,  as  in  Fig.  299.  They  should 
be  thoroly  dried  in  a  warm  place.  Then  the  tenons  may  be  laid  out 
on  the  ends  parallel  to  a  straight-edge  laid  along  the  concave  side. 
The  chair  bottom  may  be  made  of  solid  wood,  either  flat  or  modeled 
into  a  "saddle  seat;'7  it  may  be  covered  with  cane  or  rush,  or  it  may 
be  upholstered. 

To  upholster  a  chair  seat,  a  frame  should  first  be  made  of  the 

shape  shown  in  Fig. 
298,  C.  The  strips  are 
about  2"  wide  and  y*' 
thick  with  their  ends 
half-lapped.  The  seat 
rails  are  rabbeted  y^" 
deep  and  y^"  wide  to 
receive  this  frame, 
which  should  be  l/%" 
smaller  all  around  than 
the  place  to  receive  it. 
The  returns  at  the  cor- 
ners fit  around  the  legs  at  j£"  distance  from  them.  This  y%'  pro- 
vides space  for  the  coverings..  After  the  frame  is  fitted,  it  is  covered 


'  JL 


-Jrl  ''"'  Jt^—LZ 

flooding 


Fig.  301.     Siding,  Ceiling,  Flooring. 


See  note  bottom  of  p.  201. 


200 


HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 


with  3"  webbing  tacked  firmly  to  the  upper  side.  The  webbing  which 
goes  back  and  forth  is  interwoven  with  that  which  goes  from  right 
to  left.  Over  this  is  stretched  and  tacked  (also  to  the  upper  side)  a 
piece  of  unbleached  muslin.  A  second  piece  of  muslin  is  tacked  to 


Fig-.  300.     House  Construction. 

the  back  edge  and  part  way  along  the  side  edges,  leaving  for  the 
time  the  corners  unfinished.  In  the  pocket  thus  formed  horsehair  or 
other  stuffing  is  pushed,  care  being  taken  to  distribute  it  evenly  and 
not  too  thick.  When  the  pocket  is  filled,  the  muslin  is  tacked  farther 
along  the  sides  and  more  hair  put  in,  until  the  front  is  reached,  when 
the  muslin  is  tacked  to  the  front  edge.  The  corners  are  now  drawn 
in  tight,  a  careful  snip  with  the  scissors  parting  them  diagonally  so 
as  to  lie  in  well.  The  partings  may  be  turned  down  and  tacked  on 
the  under  side  of  the  frame. 

Finally  the  leather  or  other  covering  is  stretched  over  the  whole 
as  evenly  as  possible.     The  corners  should  be  left  to  the  last,  then 


TYPES  OF  WOODEN  STRUCTURES.  201 

clipped  diagonally  to  the  exact  inside  corner  and  the  partings  drawn 
down  and  tacked,  as  was  the  muslin.  The  superfluous  leather  may 
then  be  trimmed  off,  and  the  seat  should  fit  in  its  place.  Or  the  seat 
frame  may  be  omitted,  and  the  coverings  tacked  directly  to  the  chair 
rails. 

The  balloon-frame  house  is  a  typical  form  of  framed  construc- 
tion, Fig.  300.  The  essential  parts  of  a  balloon-frame  are : 

1.  SILL,  4"x8",  which  rests  on  the  foundation. 

2.  BEAMS,  4"x8",  which  rest  on  the  cellar  posts,  6"x6".      (Not  shown 
in  illustration.) 

3.  FLOOR  JOISTS,  2"x8",  which  rest  on  the  sill  and  beams. 

4.  CORNER  POSTS,  4"x6",  with  2"x4"  studs  nailed  to  them. 

5.  STUDDING,  2"x4",  which  stand  16"  between  centers. 

6.  WALL  RIBBON,  or  girt,  I"x8",  which  supports  the  upper  story  joists. 

7.  PLATES,  two  2"x4"  nailed  together,  resting  on  studs. 

8.  RAFTERS,  2"x6",  which  support  the  roof. 

9.  TIE-BEAMS,  2"x6",  which  prevent  the  roof  from  spreading  the  walls. 
(Not  shown  in  illustration.) 

10.  RIDGE-POLE,  2"x8",  against  which  the  rafters  butt. 

11.  BRIDGING,  2"x2",  which  stiffens  the  floor  joists. 

12.  SHEATHING,    (1"  thick),  put  on  diagonally  to  brace  the  building. 
The  rest  is  covering. 

13.  FLOORING,   (See  also  Fig.  301.) 

In  flooring,  Fig.  301,  the  boards  are  made  narrow  so  as  to  reduce  the 
size  of  openings  at  the  joints  when  they  shrink,  and  also  to  reduce  the 
tendency  to  warp.  They  may  be  laid  side  by  side  as  in  the  cheapest  floors, 
or  matched  to  close  the  joint.  For  difference  between  slash-  and  comb-grain 
flooring,  see  Fig  55,  p.  43. 

14.  BUILDING  PAPER. 

15.  SIDING    OR    CLAPBOARDS,     (See    Fig.    301,)     may    either    overlap 
without  a  joint  or  be  rabbeted  to  fit.     The  best  siding  is  rabbeted. 

16.  WATER-TABLE. 

17.  CORNER-BOARD. 

18.  FURRING. 

19.  SHINGLES. 

20.  LATHING. 

21.  CEILING,  Fig.   301,  consists  of  matched  boards  having  a  "bead"  to 
disguise  the  joint  and  give  a  decorative  effect. 

A  still  simpler  way  to  lay  out  the  batters*  of  the  side  rail  is  with  a 
framing-square,  thus:  The  difference  between  one-half  of  the  length  of  the 
back  rail  and  of  the  front  rail,  is,  let  us  say,  1%".  The  perpendicular  (not 
oblique)  distance  between  the  front  and  back  leg  is,  say,  16".  Fasten  the 
side  rail  in  the  vise,  edge  up.  Lay  on  it  the  steel  square  in  such  a  way  that 

*See  note  on  page   122. 

—14 


202 


HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 


the  distance  on  the  tongue  from  the  heel  of  the  square  to  the  outside  arris 
of  the  rail,  is  IVz"  and  the  distance  on  the  blade  16".  Mark  these  points 
as  at  A  and  B,  Fig.  300  A.  Scribe  along  the  tongue  across  the  edge  of  the 
rail.  This  gives  the  angle  or  batter  at  one  end  of  the  side  rail.  With  the 


Fig.  300  A.    Method  of  Laying  Out  Betters  of  Side  Rail  of  Chair.  • 

bevel  square,  transfer  the  complement  of  this  angle  to  the  other  end  of  the 
rail  at  point  B.  Repeat  on  the  other  side  rail.  The  mortises  should  run 
into  the  legs  parallel  to  their  sides  not  parallel  to  the  side  of  the  rail  as 
shown  in  A,  Fig.  298. 


TYPES   OF   WOODEN   STRUCTURES 


REFERENCES : 


Simple  Joined  Structures. 
Benson,  pp.  32-37. 
Goss,  pp.  91-96. 
Xoyes,   School  Arts  Book,  6: 
89,   179. 


Wheeler,  pp.  86,  219-227,  376. 
Sickels,  p.   120. 
Griffith,   pp.    84-1G4. 


Panel  and  Cabinet  Construction. 

Goss,  pp.   117-118,   148-151.  Sickels,  p.   134. 

Compton,    pp.    146-151.  Wheeler,  pp.   366-372. 


Framed  Structures. 

Crawshaw.  Sickels,  p.   124. 

Wheeler,  pp.  203-206,  238-297.  Building  Trades  Pocketlook,  pp.  221 

230. 


Coverings. 

Sickels,  pp.   128-131. 


Goss,  pp.  141-144. 


*For  general  bibliography  see  p.  4. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
PEINCIPLES  OF  JOINEKY.11 

1.  Avoid  multiplication  of  errors  by  making  all  measurements  (as 
far  as  possible)  from  a  common  starting  point,  and  laying  off  all 
angles  from  the  same  line  or  surface.  Illustrations  of  this  principle 
are  as  follows:  Before  proceeding  with  other  processes,  a  working 
face  and  working  edge  and  as  many  other  surfaces  as  will  finally  ap- 
pear in  the  finished  piece,  should  be  trued  up.  At  least  the  working 
face  and  working  edge  are  essential  to  the  proper  "lay-out"  of  the 
piece,  whenever  measurements  are  made  from  an  edge. 

In  laying  out  a  series  of  measurements,  it  is  important,  when  pos- 
sible, that  the  rule  be  laid  down  once  for  all,  and  the  additions  be 
made  on  that,  rather  than  that  the  rule  should  be  moved  along  for 
each  new  member  of  the  series. 

In  scoring  around  a  board  with  knife  and  try-square,  the  head  of 
the  try-square  should  be  held  against  the  working  face  in  scoring 
both  edges,  and  against  the  working  edge  in  scoring  both  faces,  and 
not  passed  from  one  surface  to  another  in  succession. 

In  the  laying  out  of  a  halved  joint,  Fig.  265,  Nos.  15-19,  p.  178, 
the  gaging  is  all  done  from  what  will  be  one  of  the  flush  surfaces  of 


11  Professor  Rankine's  Five  Principles : 

1.  To  cut  the  joints  and  arrange  the  fastenings  so  as  to  weaken   the 
pieces  of  timber  they  connect  as  little  as  possible. 

2.  To  place  each  abutting  surface  in  a  joint  as  nearly  as  possible  per- 
pendicular to  the  pressure  which  it  has  to  transmit. 

3.  To  proportion  the  area  of  each  surface  to  the  pressure  which  it  has 
to  bear  so  that  the  timber  may  be  safe  against  injury  under  the  heaviest 
load  which  occurs  in  practice,  and  to  form  and  fit  every  pair  of  such  sur- 
faces accurately  in  order  to  distribute  the  stress  uniformly. 

4.  To  proportion  the  fastenings  so  that  they  may  be  of  equal  strength 
with  the  pieces  which  they  connect. 

5.  To  place  the  fastenings  in  each  piece  of  timber  so  that  there  shall  be 
sufficient  resistance  to  the  giving  way  of  the  joint  by  the  fastenings  shearing 
or  crushing  their  way  thru  the  timber. 

203 


204 


HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 


Fig.  302. 
Marking-  by  Superposition. 


the  joined  pieces.  Then,  if  the  gaged  line  should  be  slightly  more  or 
less  than  half  the  thickness  of  the  pieces  the  closeness  of  the  joint 
would  not  be  affected. 

2.  When  possible,  in  laying  out  a  joint,  use  the  method  of  super- 
position, Fig.  302.    By  this  is  meant  the  method  by  which  the  lay-out 

of  one  member  is  obtained  di- 
rectly from  the  other  by  lay- 
ing (superposing)  the  latter 
on  the  former  and  marking  or 
scribing  the  needed  dimen- 
sions directly,  instead  of  by 
measurement.  It  has  the  ad- 
vantages of  simplicity.,  speed, 
and  greater  probability  of  fit. 
Familiar  illustrations  are 
in  the  making  of  halved  joints, 
Fig.  265,  Nos.  15-19,  p.  178, 
dovetail  joints,  Fig.  267,  Nos. 
42-45,  p.  1SO?  and  scarfed  or 
spliced  joints,  Fig.  264,  Nos.  4-7,  p.  177. 

3.  Work  systematically.     In  case  the  same  process  is  to  be  re- 
peated  on   a  number  of  parts,   complete  this  process  in   all  before 
taking  up  another  process.     This  is  the  principle  of  the  division  of 
labor  applied  to  the  individual  workman. 

In  laying  out  duplicate  or  multiple  parts,  the  proper  cross  meas- 
urements should  be  carefully  laid  out  on  one  piece  and  then 
transferred  with  a  try-square  to  the  other  parts  laid  accurately  be- 
side it.  S,o  when  a  number  of  like  pieces  are  to  be  gaged,  all  the 
parts  requiring  the  same  setting  should  be  gaged  before  the  gage  is 
reset  for  another  gaging.  This  is  a  great  saving  of  time  and  insures 
accuracy. 

In  making  a  number  of  like  parts,  if  they  are  not  too  large  much 
of  the  work  can  often  be  done  in  one  piece  before  it  is  cut  up.  For 
example,  to  make  a  number  of  slats  from  a  given  piece  of  wood,  the 
piece  may  first  be  brought  to  such  dimensions  that  the  length  will  be 
correct  for  the  finished  pieces  and  the  thickness  of  the  piece  be  equal 
to  the  width  of  the  slats,  Fig.  303.  The  face  may  then  be  gaged  with 
a  series  of  lines  so  that  every  other  space  will  be  equal  to  the  required 
thickness  of  each  slat,  and  the  alternate  spaces  be  just  sufficient  for 


PRINCIPLES  OF  JOINERY.  205 

the  saw  kerf  and  dressing.     The  slats  may  then  be  ripped  apart  and 
dressed  to  size. 

Or,  a  long  strip  may  be  planed  to  thickness  and  width  and  then 
be  sawn  up  and  finished  to  the  proper  lengths.     For  example,  in  a 
mitered  picture-frame  it  may  be  convenient  to  plane  up  two  pieces, 
each  one  long  enough  to  make  one  long 
side  and  one  short  side. 

In  fitting  up  framed  structures  each 
part  when  fitted  should  be  distinctly 
marked,  so  that  there  may  be  no  con- 
fusion in  assembling. 

4.  Where    practicable    secure     the 
same    conditions    of   grain   in   different 
elements  of  joined  structures. 

Illustrations  of  this  are  as  follows:  The  grain  of  the  sides  of  a 
box  should  run  continuously  around  the  box,  or,  in  the  case  of  a  tall, 
slim  box,  the  grain  of  all  the  sides  should  run  up  and  down.  In 
either  case,  the  grain  in  the  different  sides  is  parallel.  In  a  rubbed 
joint,  Fig.  269,  No.  70,  p.  182,  to  be  planed  down  afterward,  in  cas-.? 
the  grain  is  not  straight,  much  trouble  in  planing  may  be  saved  if 
the  different  pieces  are  laid  so  that  they  can  all  be  planed  smooth  in 
the  same  direction.  This  may  not  be  possib'e  where  the  boards  are 
joined  so  as  to  match  the  grain,  as  in  quartered  oak,  or  where  th^ 
annual  rings  of  slash  boards  are  made  to  alternate  in  direction  so  as 
to  lessen  warping,  Fig.  280,  p.  188. 

5.  Where  possible,  allow  for  shrinkage  without  prejudice  to  con- 
struction. 

The  most  obvious  illustration  of  this  principle  is  panel  construc- 
tion. In  a  panel,  the  frame,  which  is  comparatively  narrow,  follows 
the  principal  dimensions,  and  hence  does  not  seriously  shrink  or 
swell  itself.  But  the  panel,  which  is  grooved  into  the  frame  can 
shrink  or  swell  without  harm  to  the  general  structure. 

In  a  gained  joint,  as  in  a  case  of  shelves,  Fig.  266,  No.  29,  p.  179, 
the  gain  in  the  uprights  does  not  extend  quite  to  the  front  of  the 
shelves,  and  there  is  a  corresponding  slight  shoulder  at  the  front  end 
of  the  shelf,  so  that  if  the  shelf  and  support  shrink  unevenly,  no  gap 
will  be  apparent. 

A  drawing-board,  Fig.  280,  p.  188,  is  so  made  that  it  can  shrink 
or  swell  without  losing  its  flatness.  Shingles  when  properly  laid,  can 
shrink  or  swell  without  the  roof  leaking. 


206  HANDWORK    IN    WOOD. 

6.  Where  feasible,  undercut  joined  surfaces  so  as  to  give  clearance 
on  the  inside  and  Ensure  a  tight  appearance.     But  glued  surfaced 
should  be  made  to  meet  flat. 

Illustrations  of  this  principle  are  as  follows :  The  inner  end  of 
the  socket  in  a  dovetail  joint,  Fig.  267,  No.  48,  p.  180,  may  be  under- 
cut slightly  so  as  to  insure  the  pin's  falling  close  into  place. 

The  shoulder  of  any  tenon  may  be  undercut  so  as  to  allow  the 
edges  of  the  tenoned  piece  to  close  up  tight  against  the  mortised  piece. 

In  an  end-lap  halved  joint,  Fig.  265,  No.  17,  p.  178,  the  edges 
should  meet  all  around;  if  they  are  to  be  glued  together,  they  should 
not  be  undercut  or  they  will  not  glue  well. 

In  matched  flooring,  the  underside  of  the  boards  is  slightly  nar- 
rower than  the  upper  side  so  that  the  joint  may  close  on  the  upper 
side  without  fail,  Fig.  301,  p.  199,  The  ends  of  flooring  boards  are 
also  slightly  beveled  so  as  to  make  a  tight  fit  on  the  upper  side. 

7.  Select  the  simplest  form  of  joint  and  use  the  smallest  number 
of  abutments   (bearing  surfaces)   possible,  because  the  more  compli- 
cated the  joint  or  the  greater  the  number  of  bearing  surfaces,  the  less 
likelihood  there  is  of  a  sound  and  inexpensive  construction. 

Illustrations  of  this  principle  are  as  follows:  Usually  a  single 
mortise-and-tenon  joint  is  better  than  a  double  one  because  of  sim- 
plicity, strength  and  ease  of  making.  AYhere  much  surface  is  re- 
quired for  gluing,  a  double  one  may  be  better- 
In  a  dovetail  dado,  Fig.  266,  No.  28.  p.  179,  it  is  usually  sufficient 
to  make  the  dovetail  on  one  side  only. 

Many  very  elaborately  spliced  joints  have  been  devised,  which 
have  no  practical  advantage  over  the  simple  ones,  Fig.  264,  Nos.  4-7, 
p.  177. 

A  butt  joint,  Fig.  264,  No.  11,  is  stronger  than  a  mitered  joint, 
Fig.  268,  No.  52,  in  a  box,  for  the  latter  is  almost  sure  to  shrink 
apart.  Where  appearance  is  important,  a  ledge  and  miter  joint  has 
the  advantage  of  both,  Fig.  268,  No.  58. 

8.  Keep   a   due   proportion    of   strength    between    the   fastenings 
(joints)  and  the  pieces  fastened;  i.  e.,  the  construction  should  neither 
be  frail  on  the  one  hand,  because  the  pieces  of  wood  are  weakened  by 
too  much  cutting,  nor  clumsy  on  the  other  hand.,  because  then  the 
fastenings  would  be  inordinately  strong.     In  other  words,  the  differ- 
ent parts  should  be  equally  strong. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  JOINERY.  207 

Illustrations  of  this  principle  are  as  follows:  In  a  fished  joint, 
Fig.  264,  No.  2,  the  plate  should  be  attached  so  as  to  reinforce  the 
splice  at  the  weakest  point. 

In  a  scarf  joint,  Fig.  264,  Nos.  5  and  7,  the  angle  should  be 
oblique  enough  to  give  the  greatest  leverage. 

In  a  tusk  tenon,  Fig.  267,  No.  40,  the  tenon  is  made  but  one- 
sixth  the  thickness  of  the  timber,  whereas  the  tusk  is  made  much 
larger. 

Where  a  mortise  is  to  be  cut  in  a  timber  bearing  weight,  it 
should  be  cut  in  the  neutral  axis,  where  the  cutting  of  fibres  will 
weaken  it  least. 

In  the  mortise-and-tenon  of  a  table-rail,  Fig.  267,  No.  43,  there 
should  be  a  wide  shoulder  above  the  tenon  of  the  rail  so  that  the 
top  of  the  leg  above  the  mortise  will  not  shear  out.  The  mortise 
should  be  as  near  the  outside  of  the  leg  as  possible  so  that  the  inner 
corner  of  the  leg  may  remain  strong.  The  tenon  should  be  strong 
enough  to  share  the  strain  with  the  shoulders. 

A  dado  joint,  Fig.  266,  No.  25,  should  not  be  so  deep  as  to 
weaken  the  supporting  board. 

A  tenon  should  not  be  so  large  as  to  weaken  the  mortised  piece. 

Pins  or  other  fastenings,  Fig.  267,  Nos.  38  and  39,  may  weaken 
rather  than  strengthen  a  joint  if  they  are  so  placed  or  are  so  large 
as  to  shear  or  crush  their  way  thru  the  timber. 

9.  Place  each  abutting  surface  in  a  joint  as  nearly  as  possible  per- 
pendicular to  the  pressure  which  it  has  to  transmit. 

Illustrations  of  this  principle  are  as  follows :  the  angle  in  a  strut 
joint,  Fig.  266,  No.  62,  should  be  equally  divided  between  the  two 
beams. 

The  thrust  joint,  Fig.  268,  No.  63,  in  a  bridge  truss,  is  exactly 
at  right  angles  to  the  pressure. 

It  is  on  account  of  this  principle  that  a  spliced  joint  for  com- 
pression, Fig.  264,  No.  4,  is  different  from  a  spliced  joint  for  ten- 
sion, No.  5;  and  that  a  housed  braced  joint,  Fig.  269,  No.  66,  is 
better  than  a  plain  braced  joint,  No.  65. 

A  joint  to  resist  vertical  cross  strain  is  stronger  when  scarfed  ver- 
tical^ than  horizontally. 


208  HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    JOINERY 


REFERENCES  :  * 

Goss,  p.  132.  Rivington,  Vol.  I,  p.  57 

Adams,  p.  12. 


*For  general  bibliography  see  p.  4. 


CHAPTER  X. 
WOOD  FINISHING. 

STAINS. 

The  function  of  stains  is  to  change  the  color,  and  to  eucliauce 
the  grain  and  texture  of  the  wood.  Stains  may  be  divided  into 
four  general  classes,  which  are  not,  however,  entirely  distinct. 
(1)  Oil  stains,  (2)  Water  stains,  (a)  made  from  anilines,  (b)  made 
from  dyes  Other  than  anilines,  (3)  Spirit  stains,  (4)  Stains  due  to 
chemical  changes. 

(1)  Oil  stains.  Advantages:  they  are  easily  prepared,  are  easy  to 
apply  evenly,  and  they  do  not  raise  the  grain.  Disadvantages:  they 
cover  the  grain  somewhat,  are  apt  to  give  a  muddy  effect,  they  do  not 
penetrate  very  deeply  into  the  wood,  and  it  is  impossible  to  stain 
hard  wood  dark  with  them  and  at  the  same  time  keep  the  grain  and 
texture  of  the  wood  clear.  A  convenient  form  in  which  to  handle 
these  pigments  is  Devoe's  "coach  colors,"  ground  in  japan.  To  pre- 
vent evaporation  from  cans  once  opened,  it  is  well  to  keep  them  partly 
filled  with  water  and  the  water  covered  with  a  little  oil.  For  use,  the 
pigments  are  thinned  with  turpentine  or  benzine,  in  the  proportion  of 
one  pound  of  color  to  one-half  gallon  of  turpentine  or  benzine.  Ben- 
zine is  much  cheaper  than  turpentine,  but  evaporates  more  quickly. 
The  addition  of  a  little  boiled  oil  gives  a  body  to  the  stain,  so  that 
when  the  wood  is  well  rubbed  down  a  soft  lustre  can  be  had  without 
any  further  finish.  The  stain  should  be  applied  with  a  brush  to  the 
wood,  which  may  then  be  rubbed  clean  with  cotton  waste.  Oil  stains 
penetrate  hard  woods  better  when  the  wood  has  first  been  fumed  in 
ammonia.  (See  below,  p.  211).  Or,  the  addition  of  a  little  ammonia 
to  the  stain  just  before  applying  aids  it  in  penetrating  the  wood. 

The  pigments  most  used  for  oil  stains  are :  burnt  and  raw  umber, 
burnt  and  raw  sienna,  Vandyke  brown,  drop  black,  and  medium 
chrome  yellow.  These  colors  may  be  varied  by  mixing.  For  ex- 
ample, for  a  green  stain,  take  two  parts  of  drop  black  and  one  part 
of  medium  chrome  yellow,  and  dissolve  in  turpentine  or  benzine. 

209 


210  HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 

The  addition  of  a  little  vermilion  gives  a  grayer  green.  The  green 
may  be  made  bluer  by  the  addition  of  Prussian  blue,  but  the  blue  al- 
ready contained  in  the  black  gives  a  soft,  pleasant  green. 

For  antique  oak,  add  a  trine  of  burnt  umber  and  black  to  raw 
sienna  thinned  to  the  right  consistency. 

For  a  reddish  brown,  thin  burnt  umber  to  the  right  consistency. 
This  may  be  grayed  by  the  addition  of  a  little  green. 

A  walnut  stain  may  be  had  by  adding  a  little  Venetian  red  to 
asphaltum,  thinned  with  turpentine  or  benzine. 

Aniline  oil  stains.  Advantages:  the  colors  are  clear  and  easily 
obtainable.  Disadvantages:  the  colors  are  likely  to  be  crude  and  too 
bright,  and  unless  great  care  is  taken  the  tones  are  metallic  and  not 
soft  enough  to  suit  wood.  It  is  necessary  to  purchase  colors  soluble 
in  oil.  These  can  be  had  of  William  Zinnser  and  Company,  197 
William  Street,  New  York.  Four  colors  are  necessary  to  get  the  de- 
sired shades,  Bismarck  brown,  dark  yellow,  dark  blue,  and  black.  Bis- 
marck brown  comes  in  powdered  form  at  $2.40  per  lb.,  dark  yellow 
comes  in  powdered  form  at  $2.40  per  lb.,  dark  blue  comes  in  lumps 
at  $3.20  per  lb.,  black  comes  in  lumps  at  $2.40  per  lb.  These  may 
be  dissolved  in  three  ounces  of  turpentine  to  one  ounce  of  boiled  oil, 
to  one  teaspoonful  of  color,  a  process  that  will  take  place  much  faster 
if  the  mixture  is  heated.  Great  care  must  be  taken,  however,,  net 
to  set  fire  to  the  turpentine.  When  cool,  thin  with  turpentine  to  the 
proper  consistency,  apply  to  the  wood  with  a  brush  and  rub  clean 
with  cotton  waste. 

(2)  Water  Stains.  Advantages:  they  are  cheap  and  clear  and 
do  not  obscure  the  grain  as  oil  stains  are  likely  to  do,  and  they  pene- 
trate deeply  into  the  wood,  especially  when  applied  hot.  They  may  be 
made  of  any  coloring  matter  that  is  soluble  in  water,  and  are  par- 
ticularly good  for  hard  woods  and  for  use  in  large  quantities.  It  is 
possible  to  stain  wood  much  darker  with  them  than  with  oil  stains. 
Moreover,  the  brushes  used  with  them  are  easily  taken  care  of.  Dis- 
advantages: they  are  difficult  to  prepare  and  they  raise  the  grain  of 
the  wood.  The  former  disadvantage  may  be  overcome  by  buying 
them  all  prepared. 

The  difficulty  of  the  raising  of  the  grain  is  to  be  obviated  either 
by  washing  the  wood  in  water  and,  when  dry,  rubbing  down  with 
sandpaper  before  applying  the  stain,  or  rubbing  down  after  staining 
and  re-staining  when  necessary. 


WOOD  FINISHING.  211 

a.  Water  stains  made  from  anilines.     Aniline  stains  are  likely 
to  fade,  but  the  addition  of  a  little  vinegar  is  said  to  hinder  fading. 
For  Mahogany,  dissolve  1  oz.  Bismarck  brown  in  3  quarts  of  boiling 
water.    Use  when  cool. 

b.  Water  stains  made  from  dyes  other  than  anilines.    The  num- 
ber of  these  is  legion;  some  of  the  simpler  are  given. 

Eeddish  Brown.  Dissolve  extract  of  logwood  of  the  size  of  a  wal- 
nut in  ^2  cup  (4  oz.)  of  hot  water.  Apply  hot  to  wood  repeatedly 
until  desired  color  is  obtained. 

Black.  Dissolve  extract  of  logwood  of  the  size  of  a  walnut 
in  y-2.  cup  (4  oz.)  of  boiling  water.  Add  a  teaspoonful  of  alum. 
Apply  repeatedly  until  the  wood  is  dark  brown.  Prepare  acetate 
of  iron  according  to  directions  for  making  dark  brown,  on  next  page. 
Apply  this  to  wood  already  browned  with  logwood.  If  the  grain 
is  raised,  sandpaper  lightly,  or  rub  with  steel  wool  and  then  with 
boiled  oil. 

(3)  Spirit  Stains.    These  are  expensive  and  hence  little  used.    A 
few  illustrations  are  given.12 

Black.  Aniline  black,  cut  in  alcohol,  gives  a  bluish  effect  but  if 
the  wood  thus  stained  is  rubbed  with  raw  linseed  oil,  it  becomes  black. 

Another  Black.  Dissolve  extract  of  logwood  in  wood  alcohol.  De- 
velop the  color  by  going  over  the  work  with  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron. 

Golden  Oak.  Dissolve  asphaltum  in  naphtha  until  it  is  as  thin 
as  water  and  makes  a  yellowish  stain ;  or  to  equal  parts  of  asphaltum, 
varnish,  and  gold  size  japan,  add  enough  turpentine  to  thin  to  proper 
consistency. 

Mahogany.    Dissolve  Bismarck  Brown  in  alcohol. 

Aniline  stains  may  be  cut  in  alcohol  and  mixed  with  equal  parts 
of  white  shellac  and  banana  oil  (amyl  acetate)  and  all  applied  in 
one  coat. 

(4)  Stains  due  to  chemical  changes.  ^Certain  substances  like  am- 
monia, potassium  bichromate,  and  acetate  of  iron,  give  chemical  re- 
actions on  certain  woods  and  make  very  effective  and  inexpensive 
stains.     Moreover  the  artistic  effect  of  some  of  them  is  unexcelled. 
When  applied  in  solution  they  are  likely  to  raise  the  grain. 

The  effect  of  ammonia,  either  the  liquid  or  fumes,  is  much  the 
same  as  the  effect  produced  by  aging  or  weathering.  Ammonia  also 
cuts  the  pith  rays  of  oak  and  makes  it  possible  for  other  stains  to 

12For  detailed  directions  for  treatment  of  different  woods,  see  Hodg- 
son, pp.  112-153. 


212  HANDWORK   IN    WOOD. 

take  hold.  For  this  reason  it  is  much  used  as  a  preliminary  treat- 
ment for  oak  finishes.  The  color  effect  is  to  lessen  the  yellow  and 
increase  the  gray. 

The  method  of  application  is  simply  to  expose  the  wood  for  a 
day  or  more  to  the  fumes  of  strong  ammonia  (28%)  in  a  tightly 
closed  box.  If  the  surface  of  the  wood  is  moistened  with  water  just 
before  exposure,  it  turns  darker  than  if  exposed  dry.  The  stain 
penetrates  so  deeply  that  it  may  be  sandpapered  after  the  exposure 
without  harm.  After  fuming  and  sandpapering  the  surface  should 
be  oiled  to  prevent  finger  marks. 

Dark  brown  for  chestnut,  or  oak,  or  mahogany.  This  is  obtained 
with  a  solution  of  acetate  of  iron,  made  as  follows:  digest  one  part 
by  measure  of  iron  dust  in  8  parts  of  glacial  acetic  acid.  After  the 
chemical  action  is  well  started,  add  several  times  as  much  water 
to  keep  the  mixture  liquid.  When  the  chemical  action  has  ceased,  the 
stain  is  ready  for  use.  If  a  lighter  shade  is  desired  it  may  be  still 
further  diluted. 

To  darken  mahogany.  Make  a  saturate  solution  of  bichromate  of 
potash.  Dilute  a  portion  of  it  with  water  ^,  or  J/3,  or  %,  or  in  any 
proportion  according  to  the  darkness  required.  One  part  of  the  solu- 
tion to  two  or  three  parts  of  water  gives  a  good  color.  Apply  the 
solution  to  mahogany  with  a  brush.  This  solution  alone  is  likely  to 
be  too  brown.  The  reddish  tinge  of  the  wood  may  be  saved  by  mix- 
ing as  follows : 

100%  solution  of  bichromate  of  potash.  .  .  .1  part 

Breinig's  mahogany  water  stain   1  part 

Water 2  parts 

Apply  with  a  brush  and  wipe  off  the  surplus. 

Bichromate  of  potash  on  oak  gives  a  rich  brown. 

Bichromate  of  potash  on  ash  gives  a  rich  red. 

Bichromate  of  potash  on  black  walnut  gives  a  dark  brown. 

A  decoction  of  logwood  treated  with  tannin  gives  yellow  red, 
with  sugar  of  lead  gives  gray  brown,  with  ferric  nitrale  gives  black. 
A  decoction  of  fustic  extract  treated  with  dilute  nitric  acid  gives 
brown,  etc.13 


13  For  other  effects  obtained  by  chemical  changes,  see  table  on  pp.  185- 
189  in  Brannt's  Painter,  Gilder  and  Varnisher,  and  also  Woodcraft  9:71, 
June,  '08. 


WOOD   FINISHING.  213 

Commercial  Stains.  Some  of  the  more  noteworthy  commercial 
stains,  suitable  for  school  use,  are  those  of: 

The  Bridgeport  Wood  Finishing  Company,  55  Fulton  St.,  New 
York.  Among  their  water  stains  some  of  the  best  are :  Flemish  oak, 
weathered  oak,  walnut,  silver  gray,  forest  green,  and  mahogany,  es- 
pecially if  the  latter  is  modified  with  bichromate  of  potash.  Other 
effects  may  be  obtained  by  mixing  these,  as  forest  green,  which  is  too 
bright  alone,  mixed  with  walnut  or  some  other  reddish  color  gives 
a  grayish  green.  Of  the  penetrating  oil  stains  the  golden  oak  and 
mahogany  are  very  good. 

The  Sherwin  Williams  Company,  of  Cleveland,  Newark,  Chicago, 
etc.,  produce  a  fine  line  of  spirit  stains. 

The  Adams  and  Elting  Company,  Chicago,  have  a  stain  called 
adelite,  in  which  banana  oil  appears  to  be  the  solvent.  It  is  very 
easy  of  application,  only  one  coat  being  needed.  It  is  applied  with 
the  brush. 

Berry  Brothers,  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  the  famous  varnish  makers, 
furnish  a  great  variety  of  colors  in  their  water  stains  and  also  a  com- 
bined stain  and  finish  under  the  trade  name  of  Lacklustre. 

Devoe  and  Reynolds,  101  Fulton  Street,  New  York,  make  a  var- 
iety of  oil  stains  which  can  be  applied  either  in  one  coat  with  a  brush 
or  rubbed  in  with  cotton  waste. 

The  Chicago  Varnish  Company,  make  a  specialty  of  artistic  chem- 
ical stains,  but  unfortunately  they  are  not  yet  (1910)  available  in 
small  quantities. 

S.  C.  Johnson  and  Son,  Racine,  Wis.,  furnish  a  variety  of  spirit 
stains  called  "wood  dyes." 

The  Craftsman  Workshops,  Eastwood,  N.  Y.,  furnish  oil  stains  to 
be  applied  with  a  brush  or  waste.  These  are  deservedly  famous  foi 
they  give  especially  soft,  agreeable  effects  on  fumed  oak. 

In  general,  it  should  be  remembered  that  oil  stains  are  better  for 
soft  woods,  water  stains  for  hard  woods,  and  the  spirit  stains  are  good 
for  both.  But  without  a  sense  of  color,  no  number  of  recipes  will 
avail. 

FILLING 

The  object  of  filling  is  to  give  a  perfectly  level  and  non-absorbent 
basis  for  varnish  covering  or  other  finish.  This  can  be  done  with 
shellac  carefully  rubbed  down  with  fine  oiled  sandpaper,  but  this 
method  requires  much  toil  and  patience,  and  has  therefore  been  given 


214  HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 

up  by  furniture  finishers.  The  best  fillers,  (such  as  "Wheeler's  Wood 
filler")/4  are  made  of  silex  in  needle-shaped  particles  mixed  with 
raw  linseed  oil,  japan  and  turpentine.  When  applied  to  wood  it 
should  be  thinned  with  turpentine,  and  applied  with  a  brush 
along  the  grain.  As  it  dries,  the  color  becomes  grayish  and  it 
should  then  be  rubbed  off  across  the  grain  with  fine  shavings  or  cot- 
ton waste.  It  is  best  to  have  fillers  of  several  colors  on  hand,  such 
as  light,  black,  mahogany,  and  "golden  oak"  to  be  used  according 
to  the  stain  applied.  The  filler  should  be  applied  after  staining  the 
wood  and  should  be  allowed  to  dry  thoroly,  say  forty-eight  hours,  be- 
fore it  is  covered  with  shellac  or  varnish.  Its  use  is  more  necessary 
on  open  grained  woods,  like  oak,  chestnut,  and  mahogany,  than  on 
close  grained  woods,  like  whitewood,  maple,  and  pine,  but  it  is  best 
to  use  it  on  all  woods  that  are  to  be  highly  polished. 

Cans  should  be  kept  tightly  covered  when  not  in  use.  Since  oil 
darkens  wood,  if  wood  is  to  be  kept  light,  a  filler  without  oil,  as  whit- 
ing and  turpentine,  should  be  used. 

POLISHES 

There  are  three  principal  forms  of  wood  polishes,  each  of  which 
has  its  virtues  and  defects.  They  are:  (a)  oil,  (b)  wax,  (c)  the 
varnishes. 

(a)  OIL    The  great  advantage  of  oil  polishing  is  its  permanence. 
It  will  stand  both  wetting  and  warmth    and    gives    a    dull,    glossy 
finish.    In  some  woods.,  as  sweet  gum  and  mahogany,  it  brings  up  the 
figure. 

Process.  Apply  either  raw  or  boiled  linseed  oil  diluted  with  five 
parts  of  benzine  or  turpentine.  The  advantages  of  dilution  are  that 
the  mixture  penetrates  the  wood  better,  leaves  a  thinner  film  on  the 
surface  and  is  more  economical.  Then  rub,  rub,  rub,  day  after  day. 
Little  and  often  with  unlimited  friction,  is  the  best  rule.  This  makes 
a  nice  finish  for  well-fumed  chestnut,  turning  the  color  to  a  rich 
brown. 

(b)  Wax.     Wax  is  an  old  English  polish,  commonly  used  before 
French  polish  and  varnish  were  introduced,  especially  for  hard  woods 
like  oak.     Its  advantages  are  that  it  is  cheap,  easily  prepared,  easily 
applied,  and  easily  repaired.     Its  disadvantages  are  that  it  will  not 
stand  wetting,  is  easily  marred,  requires  constant  care,  is  not  so  hard 

"Made  by  the  Bridgeport  Wood  Finishing  Co.,  155  Fulton  St.,  N.  Y. 


WOOD  FINISHING.  215 

and  dry  as  varnish,  turns  slightly  sticky  with  warmth,  and  is  likely  to 
turn  white  in  crevices. 

To  prepare  it.  To  one  part  of  melted  beeswax  add  one  part  of  tur- 
pentine. Mix  and  cool.  It  can  be  bought  prepared,  as,  Bridgeport 
Wood  Finishing  Company's  "Old  Dutch  Finish,"  Butcher's  Wax, 
Johnson's  Wax,  and  others. 

Process.  Kub  the  wax  evenly  over  the  surface  with  a  stiff  brush 
or  the  fingers.  Let  it  dry  for  some  hours,  and  then  rub  with  a  cloth ; 
flannel  or  a  piece  of  felt  is  best.  Put  on  several  coats,  leaving  the 
work  over  night  between  coats.  Kub  often  with  a  warm  cloth. 

(c)  Varnishes.  The  function  of  varnishes  is  to  cover  wood  with 
a  hard,  transparent  coating  that  is  non-porous  and  impervious  to 
moisture.  There  is  a  great  range  among  them,  from  thin,  easily  worn, 
dull  finishes  to  durable,  strong,  and  highly  polished  coatings  called 
"rubbing  varnishes/'  The  polished  surface  can  be  secured  only  by 
much  labor  thru  the  application  of  successive  thin  coats  of  good  var- 
nish, carefully  rubbed  down. 

Varnish  may  be  applied  to  wood,  stained,  painted,  or  in  its  natural 
condition  as  well  as  to  metal,  leather,  paper,  and  various  other  sub- 
stances. A  good  varnish  should  be  adhesive,  that  is,  it  should  cling 
firmly  to  the  surface  to  which  it  is  applied;  it  should  be  elastic,  so 
as  not  to  crack  on  account  of  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the 
material  to  which  it  is  applied;  it  should  dry  in  a  reasonable  time; 
it  should  be  limpid  so  as  to  flow  easily  in  application;  it  should  be 
transparent  and  brilliant  when  polished;  and  it  should  be  durable. 
The  necessary  conditions  for  all  good  varnishing  are  a  perfectly 
smooth,  even,  filled  surface  of  dry  wood,  a  temperature  of  about  70° 
and  no  dust  in  the  air. 

In  general,  there  are  two  classes  of  varnish,  based  on  the  char- 
acter of  the  solvent,  (1)  Spirit  varnishes  and  (2)  Oil  varnishes. 

(1)  Spirit  varnishes  are  sometimes  made  with  copal  resins  dis- 
solved in  some  spirit,  as  one  of  the  alcohols,  benzine,  acetone,  etc. 
They  dry  with  great  rapidity  owing  to  the  volatilization  of  the  sol- 
vent spirit,  leaving  a  coat  of  pure  resin  of  great  hardness  and  brilli- 
ance, but  one  which  is  likely  to  crack  and  scale  when  exposed.  They 
are  not  much  used.  Shellac  is  the  most  common  and  the  most  useful 
of  the  spirit  varnishes.  Its  basis 'is  resin  lac,  a  compound  resinous 
substance  exuded  from  an  East  India  scale  insect  ( Carteria  lacca) 
found  mostly  in  the  province  of  Assam.  The  term  "lac"  is  the  same 


216  HANDWORK  IN  WOOD. 

as  "lakh"  which  means  100,000  and  is  indicative  of  the  countless 
hosts  of  insects  which  are  the  source  from  which  this  gum  is  ob- 
tained. The  larval  insects  insert  their  proboscides  into  the  bark  of 
young  shoots  of  certain  lac-bearing  trees,  varieties  of  Ficus,  draw  out 
the  sap  for  nutriment,  and  at  once  exude  a  resinous  secretion  which 
entirely  covers  their  bodies  and  the  twigs,  often  to  the  thickness  of 
one-half  inch.  The  females  never  escape  and  after  impregnation  their 
ovaries  become  filled  with  a  red  fluid  which  forms  a  valuable  dye 
known  as  lac  dye.  The  encrusted  twigs  are  gathered  by  the  natives 
in  the  spring  and  again  in  the  autumn,  before  the  young  are  hatched, 
and  in  this  condition  the  product  is  known  as  "stick  lac."  After 
being  crushed  and  separated  from  the  twigs  and  washed  free  from 
the  coloring  matter  the  product  is  known  as  "seed  lac."  It  is  then 
melted  and  strained  and  spread  out  in  thin  layers  in  a  form  called 
"shell  lac."  This  is  what  is  known  as  orange  shellac  in  the  market. 
It  may  be  bleached  by  boiling  in  caustic  potash,  and  passing  chlorine 
thru  it  until  the  resin  is  precipitated.  It  is  further  whitened  by 
being  pulled.  This  is  what  is  known  in  the  market  as  "white  shellac." 
It  comes  in  lumps.  Orange  shellac  is  the  stronger  and  is  less  likely 
to  deteriorate,  but  white  is  easier  to  apply  because  it  sets  less  rapidly. 
Another  advantage  of  the  white  is  its  colorlessness.  Shellac  is  solu- 
able  in  both  grain  alcohol  (ethyl  alcohol)  and  wood  alcohol  (methyl 
alcohol),  but  grain  alcohol  is  preferable.  Great  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  mix  even  a  drop  of  water  in  it  or  it  will  curdle.  To  make 
perfect  the  process  of  ordinary  filling,  shellac  may  be  used  as  a  filler 
either  by  itself  or  preparatory  to  other  processes.  Since  it  dries 
quickly  it  can  be  rubbed  down  in  six  or  eight  hours  either  with  No. 
00  sand-paper  oiled,  or  better,  with  No.  00  steel  wool.  This  process 
when  repeated  several  times  gives  a  good  "egg-shell"  finish.  It  may 
be  applied  alone  over  stained  wTood  or  the  shellac  itself  may  be  colored 
with  aniline  dyes  cut  in  alcohol.  This,  for  example,  is  an  easy  way  to 
get  a  black  finish. 

A  good  waterproof  wood  polish  is  made  thus:  1  pint  alcohol, 
2  oz.  gum  benzoin,  J4  °z-  gum  sandarac,  %  oz.  gum  anime.  Put  in 
a  bottle,  and  put  the  bottle  in  a  hot  water  bath  until  all  solids  are  dis- 
solved. Strain  and  add  %  gill  clear  poppy  oil.  Shake  well  and  apply 
with  cotton  cloth. 

A  soft,  dull,  glossy  finish  may  be  obtained  by  applying  two  coats 
of  a  mixture  of  one  part  each  of  white  shellac  and  banana  oil  (amyl 
acetate).  When  dry,  sandpaper  lightly  and  wax. 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


217 


French  polishing.  The  finest  of  shellac  finishes  is  French  polish. 
It  is  a  thin,  clear,  permanent  finish,  but  the  process  takes  time  and 
patience.  It  is  not  much  used  in  practical  work,  because  of  the 
time  expense,  but  is  often  employed  in  school  shops,  because  only  a 
few  materials  are  necessary,  it  dries  quickly,  and  gives  a  beautiful 
finish.  The  polished  surface  is  obtained  by  adding  successive  thin 
coats  according  to  the  following  process : 

(1)  Preparation.  The  surface  of  the  wood  must  be  perfectly 
smooth  and  even,  sandpapered  in  the  direction  of  the  grain,  stained, 
if  desired,  filled,  rubbed  smooth  and  quite  dry.  (2)  Apply  two  or 
three  thin  coats  o£.  shellac.  After  each  coat  when  dry,  rub  with 
No.  00  oiled  sandpaper  or  No.  00  steel  wool.  Wipe  thoroly.  (3) 
Make  three  pads,  about  the  size  of  a  walnut,  of  clean,  white,  cotton 
waste,  enclosed  in  some  fine  old  or  washed  cloth  with  no  sizing  or 
lint, — one  pad  for  shellac,  one  for  oil,  and  one  for  alcohol.  Fill  one 
pad  with  shellac  of  the  consistency  of  milk,  enough  in  the  pad  so  that 
when  squeezed  hard  it  will  ooze  out.  The  common  mistake  is  to  put 
too  much  shellac  into  the  pad.  Rub  with  circular  motion,  as  indi- 
cated in  Fig.  304,  never  letting 
the  pad  stop  on  the  surface. 
(4)  Sprinkle  a  very  little  finely 
powdered  pumicestone  and  put 
a  little  oil  on  the  surface  of  the 
wood  here  and  there  with  the 
tip  of  a  finger.  Rub  with  sec- 
ond pad  until  surface  is  dull. 
Wipe  clean.  Repeat  (3)  and 
(4)  several  times.  Some  use 
raw  linseed  oil  to  prevent  stick- 
ing. Others  use  three  or  four 
cloth  coverings  on  the  shellac 
pad,  removing  the  outer  one  as 

it  dries.  A  simpler  way  is  to  keep  the  shellac  in  pad,  1,  thin  by 
moistening  with  a  little  alcohol.  (5)  Spiriting  off  (Follows  process 
4.)  Dampen  pad,  3,  with  very  little  alcohol  and  wipe  quickly  in 
the  direction  of  the  grain.  This  should  remove  the  circular  marks. 
Too  much  alcohol  in  this  third  pad  will  "burn"  a  dull  spot,  The 
rubbers  are  said  to  improve  with  use,  and  may  be  preserved  in  closely 
stoppered  jars  to  prevent  evaporation.  The  different  kinds  of  pads 


Fig-.  304.    Direction  of  the  Pad  in  French 
Polishing. 


218  HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 

should  be  kept  separate.  Or  the  cotton  waste  may  be  thrown  away, 
and  the  cloths  washed  in  strong  borax  water.  In  the  process  just 
described,  shellac  alone,  dissolved  in  alcohol,  is  used.  The  shellac 
may  be  used  with  other  ingredients :  for  example,  1  pint  grain  alco- 
hol, Y^  oz.  gum  copal,  *4  oz-  gum  arable,  1  oz.  shellac.  Strain 
through  muslin. 

Another  recipe  for  finishing.  Use  4  drams  grain  alcohol,  2  drams 
orange  shellac,  5  drams  tincture  of  benzoin,  1  teaspoonful  of  olive 
oil.  Dissolve  and  strain.  Apply  with  pad  in  direction  of  grain. 

Oil  or  Copal  Varnishes.  The  old  Cremona  varnish  once  used  for 
violins  is  supposed  to  have  had  amber  (Greek,  electron)  as  its  base. 
It  was  a  fossilized  coniferous  resin  found  on  the  shore  of  the  Baltic 
Sea.  The  art  of  making  it  is  said  to  be  lost,  probably  because  of 
the  difficulty  and  clanger  of  melting  it,  for  this  can  be  done  only  in 
oil  on  account  of  the  danger  of  ignition.  Hence  its  use  has  been 
abandoned. 

Perhaps  the  most  beautiful  of  all  varnishes  is  lacquer,,  much  used 
in  China  and  Japan.  It  is  made  from  the  juice  of  the  lacquer  tree, 
(Rlius  vernidfera)  which  is  tapped  during  the  summer  months.  The 
juice  is  strained  and  evaporated  and  then  mixed  with  various  sub- 
stances, such  as  oil,  fine  clay,  body  pigment,  and  metallic  dust,  accord- 
ing to  the  ware  for  which  it  is  intended.  The  manufacturing  secrets 
are  carefully  guarded.  The  application  of  it  is  very  difficult,  the  sap 
of  young  trees  being  used  for  first  coats,  and  of  old  trees  for  the 
finishing  coats.  It  must  be  dried  in  a  damp,  close  atmosphere.  For 
the  best  work  ten  or  twelve  coats  are  elaborately  rubbed  down  and 
polished.  Even  the  presence  of  it  is  very  poisonous  to  some  people 
and  all  workers  in  it  are  more  or  less  affected. 

The  solvent  or  vehicle  of  the  modern  copal  varnishes  consists 
principally  of  linseed  oil  with  some  turpentine.  Their  base  is  Copal, 
a  fossil,  resinous  substance  of  vegetable  origin.  The  gums  of  which 
they  are  made  have  been  chemically  altered  by  long  exposure  in  the 
earth.  Other  gums,  as  mastic,  dammar,  sandarac,  and  even  resin  are 
sometimes  mixed  with  copal  to  cheapen  the  product  or  to  cause  more 
rapid  drying.  Copal  is  a  generic  name  given  originally  to  all  fossil 
resins.  Copals,  as  they  are  called,  come  from  New  Zealand,  Mozam- 
bique, Zanzibar,  West  Africa,  Brazil,  and  the  Philippines.  The  best 
of  the  Copals  is  paid  to  be  the  Kauri  gum,  originally  exuded  from 
the  Kauri  pine  tree  of  New  Zealand.  The  tree  is  still  existent  and 


WOOD  FINISHING.  219 

produces  a  soft,  spongy  sap,  but  the  resin  used  in  varnish  is  dug  up 
f rom  a  few  feet  under  ground  in  regions  where  there  are  now  no 
trees.  A  commercially  important  copal  and  one  noted  for  its  hard- 
ness is  the  Zanzibar  or  East  African  Copal.  It  is  found  imbedded 
in  the  earth  at  a  depth  not  greater  than  four  feet  over  a  wide  belt 
of  the  mainland  coast  of  Zanzibar,  on  tracts  where  not  a  single  tree 
now  grows.  It  occurs  in  lumps  from  the  size  of  small  pebbles  to 
pieces  weighing  four  or  five  pounds.  The  supply  is  said  to  be  prac- 
tically inexhaustible. 

As  to  the  manufacture  of  the  Copal  varnishes :  first  of  all,  a  high 
grade  oil  is  boiled  at  a  High  temperature,  with  different  materials  to 
oxidize  it;  for  instance,  red  lead  or  oxide  of  manganese.  The  heat 
throws  off  the  oxygen  from  the  red  lead  or  manganese.  The  oxygen 
is  absorbed  by  the  linseed  oil,  which  is  then  put  away  to  settle  and 
age.  When  a  batch  of  varnish  is  made,  the  gums  are  melted  in  a 
large  kettle  and  then  the  requisite  amount  of  oil  is  added  and  these 
carefully  boiled  together.  This  is  removed  from  the  fire  and  cooled 
down  to  a  point  where  turpentine  can  be  added  without  volatilizing. 
These  are  thoroly  mixed  and  then  filtered  under  pressure  and  tanked 
and  aged.  The  different  grades  of  varnish  depend  upon  the  treatment 
of  the  oil,  the  proportion  of  oil  and  turpentine,  the  qualities  of  the 
gums,  the  aging,  etc.  Some  by  rubbing  give  a  very  high  polish,  some 
give  a  dull  waxy  finish,  some  are  for  out-of-door  use,  as  Spar  varnish 
and  carriage  varnish,  some  are  for  floors,  some  for  funiture,  some  are 
high  priced,  some  are  cheap. 

Process  of  Varnishing.  The  preliminary  processes  are  the  same 
as  those  for  applying  shellac,  i.  e.,  the  surface  of  the  wood  must  be 
perfectly  even  and  smooth,  and  the  staining,  filling,  and  drying  com- 
plete. Quick  drying  varnishes,  like  shellac,  are  applied,  with  but 
little  on  the  brush.  The  heavy,  high  lustre  varnishes,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  applied  with  the  brush  full  so  that  the  varnish  may  even 
drip  off  the  work.  Then  proceed  as  follows:  Wipe  off  from  the 
work  the  extra  varnish  with  the  brush  and  clean  the  brush  on  the 
edge  of  the  cup.  Eepeat  till  the  varnish  is  flowed  over  the  work 
evenly.  Be  particularly  careful,  in  that  respect,  of  edges  and  corners. 
Set  to  dry  in  a  dustless  place.  When  dry  and  hard  repeat  the  process 
from  three  to  six  times.  Each  coat  must  dry  thoroly  before  the  next 
coat  is  applied. 


220  HANDWORK  IN   WOOD. 

Varnish,  polishing  consists  in  rubbing  off  the  varnish,  not  in  rub- 
bing it  on,  as  in  French  polishing.  To  polish  varnish,  rub  with  a  felt 
pad,  powdered  pumice-stone  and  water.  Rub  till  the  surface  is  smooth, 
unpitted  and  even,  being  careful  not  to  rub  thru  the  edges.  Wipe 
clean  with  a  wet  sponge  and  chamois  skin.  This  gives  a  dull  or  "egg- 
shell" finish.  For  polishing  varnish,  a  simple  method  is  to  rub  with 
a  rotary  motion,  using  a  mixture  of  y2  sweet  oil  or  cottonseed  oil, 
and  ^2  alcohol. 

A  more  laborious  process  is  as  follows :  After  rubbing  to  a  dull 
finish,  rub  ground  rotten  stone  and  water  with  chamois  skin  in  a  cir- 
cular motion.  Let  the  rotten  stone  dry  on  the  surface.  Then  wipe 
off  with  the  naked  hand,  rubbing  in  a  circular  direction  and  wiping 
the  hand  every  time  after  passing  over  the  work.  This  looks  simple, 
but  is  really  a  fine  art.  These  processes  have  practically  replaced 
French  polishing  in  the  trade. 

PAINTING 

Paints  are  used  for  the  same  purpose  as  other  finishes,  with  the 
additional  one  of  giving  an  opaque  colored  covering.  The  materials 
used  are: 

1.  A  body  whose  function  is  to  give  covering  power.  This  is 
usually  white  lead,  but  it  is  often  adulterated  with  zinc  oxide;  2. 
Pigments;  3.  Linseed  oils,  raw  and  boiled,  which  are  used  to  give 
consistency,  adhesiveness  and  also  elasticity  to  the  coat  when  dry. 
For  outdoor  work  boiled  oil  is  used  and  for  indoor  work,  raw  oil; 
4.  Turpentine,  which  is  used  to  thin  out  the  paint  and  to  make  it 
dry  more  quickly. 

The  common  method  of  painting  is :  1.  Set  any  nails  with  nail- 
set;  2.  Sandpaper;  3.  Shellac  the  knots;  4.  Prime  with  a  thin  coat 
of  paint,  mostly  white  lead,  (that  is,  little  color,)  boiled  oil,  and 
turpentine  (the  proportion  of  drying  oil  is  greater  than  in  ordinary 
paint)  ;  5.  Putty  up  cracks,  nail  holes,  etc.;  6.  Sandpaper  if  a  small 
nice  job;  7.  Then  paint  two  or  three  coats  with  paint  thick  enough 
so  it  will  not  run,  with  long,  even  strokes  with  the  grain.  The  order 
of  painting  a  door  is,  panels,  muntins,  rails,  and  last,  stiles. 

For  inside  work  use  half  as  much  turpentine  as  oil.  This  gives  a 
dull  finish.  For  outside  work,  where  lustre  is  wanted,  little  or  no 
turpentine  is  used. 


WOOD  FINISHING.  221 

This  is  the  old  way,  and  is  still  used  for  all  common  work.  But 
for  fine  painting,  as  carriage  work,  a  filler  is  now  used  first,  because  a 
priming  to  be  durable  should  unite  with  the  wood,  grasping  the 
fibers  and  filling  the  pores,  so  that  after  coats  cannot  sink  in.  The 
object  is  to  cement  the  surface.  Priming  is  often  called  "rough 
stuff."  The  old  way  did  not  do  this,  with  the  result  that  the  oil  sep- 
arated from  the  lead  and  kept  soaking  into  the  wood.  The  principal 
makers  of  paints  now  recommend  a  filler  before  any  white  lead  is 
added. 

TOOLS  AND  ^MATERIALS  FOR  WOOD  FINISHING 

Brushes.  It  is  well  to  have  several  varieties  to  help  keep  them 
distinct.  For  varnish  and  shellac,  the  best  are  those  with  the  bristles 
set  in  hard  rubber.  For  ordinary  purposes,  brushes  one  inch  wide 
are  satisfactory.  For  stains,  cheap,  tin-bound  brushes  are  <;ood 
enough,  and  are  easily  replaced. 

Cups.  Half-pint  enameled  steel  cups  are  cheap,  satisfactory,  and 
easily  kept  clean.  For  the  care  of  cups  and  brushes,  see  Chapter  VI, 
The  Equipment  and  Care  of  the  Shop. 

Steel  wool.  This  consists  of  shavings,,  turned  from  thin  steel 
discs  set  together  in  a  lathe.  It  comes  in  various  grades,  No.  00  to 
No.  3.  The  finest,  No.  00,  is  coarse  enough  for  ordinary  purposes. 

Sandpaper.  Use  No.  00  smeared  with  boiled  oil.  Pulverized 
pumice  stone  and  pulverized  rotten  stone,  both  very  fine,  are  used  to 
rub  down  inequalities  and  to  give  a  dull  finish  to  shellac  or  varnish. 
Use  with  oil  on  shellac  and  with  oil  or  water  on  copal  varnish.  Horse- 
hair and  soft  wood  shavings  are  often  used  to  rub  down  varnish. 
French  felt,  medium  hard,  is  used  for  rubbing  down  copal  varnish 
with  pumice  stone. 

Cotton  waste  is  the  cheapest  available  material  for  wiping. 

Cheese  cloth  is  better  for  some  purposes,  but  more  expensive. 

Soft  cloth  without  lint  is  necessary  for  French  polishing.  "Berke- 
ley muslin."  "Old  Glory,"  and  "Lily  White"  are  trade  names.  A 
fine  quality  is  necessary.  The  starch  should  be  washed  out  and  the 
cloth  dried  before  using,  and  then  torn  into  little  pieces,  say  4"  square. 

Fillers  consist  of  silex  or  of  ground  earths  mixed  with  oil,  japan, 
and  turpentine.  Their  object  is  to  give  a  perfectly  level  and  non- 
absorbent  basis  for  varnish  covering. 

Oils.  Eaw  linseed  oil  is  very  fat  and  dries  slowly.  It  is  used  for 
interior  work. 


222  HANDWORK   IN   WOOD. 

Boiled  oil  is  linseed  oil  boiled  with  litharge  (PbO)  and  white 
vitriol,  which  removes  much  of  the  fatty  ingredient  and  gives  it  dry- 
ing quality. 

Turpentine  is  a  volatile  oil  from  the  sap  of  long-leaf  pine.  It  is 
mixed  with  oil  in  painting  to  give  further  drying  qualities. 

Benzine  is  a  cheap  substitute  for  turpentine.  It  is  a  highly  in- 
flammable product  of  coal  tar  and  evaporates  quickly. 

Drier  is  an  oil  in  which  resin  has  been  dissolved.  It  is  mixed 
with  varnishes  and  paint  to  make  them  dry  quickly.  It  is  also  some- 
times used  as  a  varnish  itself. 

Japan  is  a  varnish-like  liquid  made  of  shellac  or  other  resin,  lin- 
seed oil,  metallic  oxides,  and  turpentine.  It  is  used  as  a  medium  in 
which  to  grind  colors  and  as  a  drier. 


WOOD  FINISHING.  223 


WOOD  FINISHING 
REFERENCES : * 

(1)  Stains. 

Hodgson,   II,  pp.  25-59,  Maire,  pp.  46-64. 

155-164. 
Van  Deusen,  Man.  Tr.  Mag., 

6:  93. 

(2)  Fillers. 

Hodgson,  II,  pp.  7-25.  Maire,  65-72. 

(3)  Oil  Finish. 

Hodgson,  II,  pp.  99-103.  Maire,  p.  117. 

(4)  Wax. 

Hodgson,  II,  pp.  93-99.  Maire,  pp.   112-116. 

(5)  Varnish. 
Shellac. 

Maire,  pp.  73-80,   101-111.  Hodgson,  II,  pp.  66-93. 

Journal,  800.  Arts,  49:   192.  Inter.  Encyc.,  Vol.  X,  "Lac." 
Ency.  Brit.,  Vol.  XIV,  "Lac." 
Oil  Varnish. 

Hodgson,  II,  pp.   59-66.  Maire,  pp.  81-100. 

Clark,   pp.   1-69.  Ency.  Brit.,  Vol.  XXIV,  "Varnish." 

(6)  Paints. 

Brannt,  p.  134-152.  Building   Trades  Pocketbook,  pp. 

357-360. 

For  detailed  directions  for  the  treatment  of  different  woods,  see  Hodg- 
son, II,  pp.  112-153,  Maire,  pp.  124-141. 


*For  general  bibliography  see  p.  4. 


INDEX. 


Acorn  of  hinge,   131. 

Adjustment  of  plane,   70,   72. 

Adze,  88. 

Agacite  grinder,   61,   120,   121,   137. 

Alcohol: 

Grain    (Ethyl),    216. 

Wood    (Methyl),    216. 
Alligator,    28. 
Ammonia,    209,    211. 
Angle    of   bevel,    58,    59. 
Aniline    stains: 

Alcohol,    211. 

Oil,    210. 

Water,    211. 
Antique   oak,    210. 
Anvil,    141. 

Arrangement    of    shop,    142-144. 
Arris,    57,    184. 
Asphaltum,    210. 
Auger-bit,   53,    84,    85,   137,    140. 
Auger-bit-gage,   116. 
Ax,    10,    51,    87. 
Back-saw,    65,    136,    138. 
Balloon   frame,    201. 
Banana   oil,    213,    216. 
Band-saw,    31. 
Banking  grounds,   16. 
Batters,    122a,    201. 
Beam-compass,    114. 
Beams,    201. 
Bench,    97-99,    136,    138,    141,    143. 

Glue   and   Stain,    142,    148. 
Bench-hook,    78,    102,    104,    137,    139. 
Bending  wood,   199. 
Benzine,    209,    210,    214,    222. 
Bevel  of  cutting  tools,   52,   55,   120. 
Bevel,   Sliding  T,   113,  137,   140. 
Bezel,   See  Bevel. 
Bill-hook,    10. 
Binding   of   saw,    63,    65. 
Bit,   Plane,    70,   77. 
Bits,    84-87,    137,    140. 
Bit,   Twist,    84,   85. 
Bil-point   drill,    84,   85. 
Bit-stock,    See    Brace. 
Black,   209,   211. 
Blank-hinge,    131. 
Blazes   on   trees,    7,  8. 


Blinds,    194. 

Block,    Corner,    155    No.    12,    177,    199. 

Block-plane,    See    Plane,    Block. 

Blue,    Prussian,    210. 

Board,    48. 

Board    construction,    184-192. 

Board-flipper,    35,    36. 

Board  foot,    48,    109. 

Board   measure,    48,    109,    110. 

Board    structures,    184-192. 

Bolt   of  lock,    133. 

Bolts,   127. 

Book    shelves,    185. 

Boom,    Log,    20,    21. 

Boring,   Directions    for,    85. 

Boring    tools,    83-87. 

Box,    187-191. 

Bottoms,    188. 

Lids,    188,    189. 

Of  lock,    133. 

Brace,    103,    105,    137,    140. 
Brace,    Ratchet,    103,    105,    137. 
Brace-measure,    107. 
Bracket,    185. 

Brad-awl,    83,    84,    138,   140. 
Brads,    124. 

Breaking  out  the   roll-ways,    16. 
Bridging,    201. 
Brown,    Bismarck,    210,    211. 

Dark,    212. 

Reddish,  210,   211. 

Vandyke,    209. 

Brush,    138,   141,    149,    209,    210,    221. 
Brush,    See   also   Duster. 
Brush-Keeper,    150. 
Buckling   of    saw,    62,    65,    67. 
Buffer,    121,   147. 
Burn    of    shellac,    217. 
Butt-hinge,    131. 
Cabinet   construction,    192-195. 
Cabinet    for    nails    and    screws,    142 

145,    147. 
Calipers,    114. 
Camp,   logging,    8,    9. 
Cant,    35,    foot-note. 
Cant-flipper,    35,   36. 
Cant-hook,    10,    13. 
Cape-chi-el,    141. 


224 


INDEX.- 


225 


Care  of  the  shop,   142-150. 
Carriage-bolts,    127. 

Carteria  lacca,  215. 
Carving    tools,    60,    140. 
Case-hardening,    46. 
C-Clamps. 

See   carriage-makers'    clamps. 
Ceiling,    201. 
Center-bit,  84,  86. 
Chain,   10,    13,    15,   16. 
Chair,    198-201. 
Chalk,   French,    197. 
Chamfer,  82,   115,  161,   184. 
Chatter,   71,   92.  ^ 

Cheek  of  joint,   160. 
Cheese-cloth,    221. 
Chest,  193,  195. 
Chest-hinge,   131. 
Chisel,    52-59,    136,   137,    139,    140,    183. 

See      also      Chiseling     end-wood, 

Paring,    Sidewise    chiseling. 
Chisel,  Cape,   141. 

Carving,   54. 

Cold,   141. 

Corner,  55. 

Firmer,    54,    136,    139. 

Framing,   55. 

Mortise,    54,    55,    161. 

Paring,    54. 

Round-nosed    55,    141. 

Skew,    55. 

Turning,  54. 
Chisel-gage,  69. 
Chiseling,  end-wood,  56,  57,  183. 

Sidewise,  56. 

Perpendicular,   56. 
Choking  of  Plane,   76. 
Chopping   tools,    87,    88. 
Clamp,   101,   138,   141,   169. 

Carriage-makers,   102,   138,   141. 

Column,   169. 

Plane,   70,   77. 
Clapboards,   201. 
Claw  hammer,    96. 
Cleaning   tools,    121. 
Cleats,   186,   388. 
Comb-grain,    41,    42. 
Compass,    113,    114,   137,    139. 

Blackboard,    117,    141. 
Compass-saw,   66,   139. 
Consumer,    33,    41. 
Copal,    218. 
Coping-saw,    139. 
Copper,   Soldering,   141. 
Corner-blocks,    155,   No.    12,    177,    199. 
Corner-board,   201. 
Cornering  tool,  83. 


Corner-iron,    127,    128. 
Corner  locking,   164. 
Corrugated   fasteners,    125,    170. 
Cost  of  Equipment,   136-142. 
Countersink,    84,     87,     126,     138,     140, 

141. 

Cricket,  186. 

Crosscut-saw,    10,    64-66,   137,   139. 
Cross-grained  wood,   Planing,   75. 
Crowbar,  10. 

Crown  of  Plane-cutter,   71. 
Cruising,   8. 
Cup,    138,    141,    221. 
Curling-iron,    70. 
Cutter,   Plane,    70,    76,    77,    138. 
Cutting-gage,    116,    140. 
Cutting  tools,   51-83. 
Dado,    56,    80. 

See   also    Joint,   Dado. 
Dado-plane,    80. 
Dam,   Splash,   20,   21. 
Decay,   32,   45. 
Decking  logs,  13. 
Demonstration   seats,    143. 
Derrick,    Locomotive   boom,    25. 
Destructive   lumbering,   causes   of,    ?. 
Die,  141. 
Die-holder,    141. 
Dividers,   113,   114,   137,   140. 
Dogs,   log,    34. 
Donkey    engine,    24. 
Door,    192,    193. 
Dovetail-saw,   66,   137,   139. 
Doweling,   127,   130,   152,   154,    175. 
Dowel-plate,    139,    140. 
Dowel-pointer  83,  139,  175. 
Dowel-rods,   127,  175. 
Draw-bolt,    154. 
Draw-knife,    61,    139. 
Drawer,   166,    190-192. 

Guide,    196. 

Rail,   196. 

Runner,   196. 

Drawing-board,    186,   188,   205. 
Dray-road,    9,   13. 
Drier,   222. 
Drill.     See  Hand  Drill. 

Twist,    84,    85,    138,    141. 
Drive,   The  log,    16-18. 
Duplicate  parts,    155,    204. 
Duster,  Bench,  121,   137,   139. 
Dynamite,   21. 
Edge   action,    52. 
Edged  Tools,   51ff. 
Edger,   35,    36,    37. 
Eight-square   scale,    108. 
Egg-shell  finish,   94,   216. 


226 


B  INDEX. 


Equipment,    Chap.   VI,    136-150. 

Escutcheon   of   lock,    133. 

Expansive-bit,    84,    87,    137,    140. 

Falling   beds,    24. 

Fastenings,   Chap.  V,   123-135. 

Felling   trees,    10,    11,    23. 

Ferrule,   54. 

File,   90,    91,   137,   140,    142,    147. 

File-card,     91,     137,     140. 

Filing  a  saw,   67. 

Filletster,    80,    137,   139. 

Filler,    213,    221. 

Finishing,  Wood,  Chap.   X,   209-223. 

Firmer-chisel, 

See    under    chisel. 
Firmer-gouge, 

See  under  gouge. 
Fish    glue,    129. 
Fitter,   9. 

Flooring,    30,    42,    174,   201,    206. 
Flume,   21,   22. 

Foerstner    Auger-bit,    84,    87. 
Foot-stool,    186. 
Fore-edge,    196. 
Fore-plane, 

See  under   Plane. 
Framed   structures,    195-201. 
Framing-chisel, 

See   under   Chisel. 
Frog,    Plane,    70,    75. 
Fuming   with    ammonia,    212,    214. 
Furring,    201. 
Gages,    114-116. 

Chisel,    69. 

Cutting,   116,   140. 

Marking,   114-116,  136,  139,  203. 

Mortise,   116,  140,   161. 

Pencil,   115. 

Screw,   116,    117,   126. 

Slitting,    116. 

Twist-drill,    117. 

Wire,  116,   117. 
Gelatin,    128. 

Gimlet-bit,   84,   85,  137,   140. 
Glass-cutter,    138,    141. 
Glaziers    points,    125. 
Glue,   128-131. 

Fish,    129. 

Liquid,    129. 

Preparation   of,    129. 

Tests  of,  129. 

Glue-pot,   129,    138,   141,    148. 
Gluing,  Directions  for,   130,   153,   167- 

170,   173,   189,    190. 
Golden  Oak,  211. 
Gouge,    59,    60,    137,    140,    183. 
Grading   of  lumber,    36. 


Grain   of  wood,   60,   75,   172,   185,   186, 

192,   205,   209,   210. 
Green,    209. 
Grinder   or  Hog,    41. 
Grinder,    Empire    Tool,    61,    120,    121, 

137,    140. 

Grinding    of    tools.      See    sharpening. 
Grindstone,    117-120,    137,    140. 
Groove   for  drawer,   191. 
Groove  for  panel,   164. 
Groove,  Triangular,  66,   156,   158,  159, 

161. 

Hack-saw  137,    141. 
Hammer,    58,    94,    95,    96,    136,    139. 

Ball-peen,    142. 

Bell-faced,    95. 

Riveting,   141. 

Hand-drill,    104,    106,    138,    141. 
Handscrew,    101,    102,    138,    141,    170, 

173. 
Handscrew,    Iron,    102. 

See  also  Clamp,  carriage-makers. 
Hatchet,    88. 

Hauling   logs,    13,    15,    22,    23. 
Hinges,   131-133. 
Hinges,    sizes   of,    131. 
Hinging,  Directions   for,  132. 
Hog,    41. 

Holding    tools,    97-105. 
Honeycombing,   46. 
Horse,   64,   65,   100. 
Horsehair,    200. 

House    construction,    200,    201. 
Ice-road,    13,    14. 
Impregnation    of   timber,    47. 
Iron  acetate,    211,    212. 
Iron,    Soldering.      See    copper. 
Jack-ladder,   32. 
Jack-plane.      See    Plane. 
Jam,   log,   18,   19,    21. 
Japan,    209,    222. 
Japanese,    69,    97,    189. 
Joinery,    151. 
Joint,    Beaded,    175,    No.    73,    182. 

Bevel-shoulder,    172,    No.    67,    182. 

Bird's  mouth,   172,  No.   69,   182. 

Boat-builders,  152,  No.   7,   177. 

Brace,    171,    No.    65,    182. 

Brace,    Housed,    172,    No.    66,    182. 
207. 

Bridle,   172,  No.   68,   182. 

Butt,    155,    No.    11,    177,    187,    206. 

Butt,    Doweled,    152,    No.    8,    153, 
177,    194. 

Caulked,   157,   No.   22,   178. 

Checked,  157,  No.   21,  178. 


INDEX. 


227 


Joint,  continued. 

Cogged,   15 1,   No.    22,   178. 
Corked,  157,  No.  22,  178. 
Column,   169,  No.   52,   181. 
Cross-lap,   155,   No.    14,   177. 
Dado,   157,  No.   25,  179,  191. 
Dado    and    rabbet,    158,    No.    26, 

179,    187. 
Dado,  Dovetail,   158,  No.   28,   179, 

191,    206. 
Dado,    housed,    157,    No.    25,    179, 

187,  207. 
Dado,    tongue,    and    rabbet,    158, 

No.   27,  179,  T91. 
Dovetail,    Blind    miter,    167,    No. 

51,   180,  187. 

Half-blind,    166,   No.    49,   180. 
Lap,  166,  No.  49,  180. 
Secret,   X67,  No.   51,  180,  187. 
Stopped   lap,    166,   No.    50,    180. 
Thru  multiple,  165,  No.  48,  180, 

187,   206. 
Thru    single,    165,   No.    47,    180, 

194. 

Doweled,   175,   No.    75,   182. 
Draw-bolt,  154,  No.  10,  177. 
Edge-to-edge,    172-174. 
End-lap,    156,    No.    16,    178,    194, 

206. 

Fillistered,   174,   No.    71,    182. 
Fished,  151,  No.  2,  177,  207. 
Forked  tenon  157,  No.   23,  178. 
Gain,   159,  No.    29,  179,   205. 

Dovetail,   158,   No.    28,   179. 
Glue,   172,  No.   70,  182. 
Glued-and-blocked,    155,    No.    12, 

177. 

Grooved,   157,   No.   25,    179. 
Halved  Tee,   156,   No.   15,   178. 
Halving,    Dovetail    157,    No.     18, 

178. 
Halving,    Beveled,    157,    No.    19, 

178. 

Halving,   155-157. 
See    also    Joint,    Cross-lap,    End- 
lap,   Middle  lap. 
Haunching,    Table,    164,    No.    43, 

180. 

Taper,   164,  No.  43,   180. 
Hopper,  155,  No.  13.  177. 
Lap-dovetail,   157,  No.   18,   178. 
Lapped  and  strapped  151,  No.   1, 

177. 

Ledge,  157,  No.  24,  179,  187. 
Ledge    and    miter,    171,    No.    5.8, 

181,    187,    206. 
Matched,    174,   No.    72,    182. 


Joint,  continued. 

Middle-lap,   156,  No.   15,  178. 
Miter,   167,  No.  52,   181,   187,   194, 

206. 
Double  dovetail  keyed,  171,  No. 

57,   181. 

Double  tongue,  171,  No.  60, 181. 
Doweled,   170,  No.   53,   181. 
Lipped,  171,  No.   58,  181. 
Slip  dovetail,   171,   No.   56,  181. 
Slip-feather,    170,    No.    55,    181. 
Slip-key,    170,   No.    55,    181. 
Spline,   170,  No.   54,  181,   187. 
Stopped,  171,  No.   59,  181. 
Tongue,   170,  No.   54,   181. 
Mortise-and-tenon,    58,    127,    160- 

164,  172,  194. 
Bare-faced,    164,    No.    44,    180, 

185. 

Blind,  160,  No.   32,  179,  193. 
Double,    163,   No.    41,    180. 
Dovetail,   162,   No.   37,   179. 
End,   164,   No.   46,   180. 
Foxtail,    162,  No.   36,   179. 
Haunched,     163,     No.     42,     180, 

193,    196,    207. 
Housed,   164,   No.   45,   180. 
Keyed,  163,  No.  39,  180,  185. 
Oblique,   172,  No.   67,   182. 
Open,    164,   No.   46,   180. 
Pinned,    162,    No.    38,    180,    194, 

207. 

Shoulder,   163,  No.   40,   180. 
Stub,   160,  No.   30,  179. 
Thru,   160,   No.   31,   179. 
Tusk,   163,   No.   40,   180,   207. 
Wedged,   128,   162,  Nos.   34   and 

35,    179. 

Notched,  157,  No.   20,  178. 
Notch,   Double,   157,   No.    21,    178. 
Rabbet,    157,    No.    24,    179,    174; 

No.    71,   182,    187. 
Rebated.     See  Joint,  Rabbet. 
Rubbed,    172,    No.     70,    173,    182, 

205. 
Scarf,    151,    Nos.    4,    5,    6    and    7, 

177,   204,   207. 

Slip,    164,    No.    46,   180,    194. 
Spliced,   151,  Nos.   4,  5,   6,   7,  177. 

204,   206,   207. 
Spline,    175,    No.    74,    182. 
Squeezed,  172,  No.  70,  174,  182. 
Stretcher,   171,   No.   61,   181. 
Strut,  171,  No.   62,  181,   207. 
Thrust,  171,  Nos.  63  and  64,  181, 

207. 
Tie,  171,  Nos.   63   and  64,  181. 


228 


INDEX. 


Joint,  continued. 

Toe,   171,  Nos.   63   and  64,   181. 

Toe-nailed  154,  No.    9,   177. 

Tongue-and-groove     174,    No.     72, 

182. 

Jointer-plane,    72. 
Jointing  a  saw,   68. 
Joints,    Chap.    VII,    151-182. 

Beveled,    167-172. 

Butt,   152-155. 

Dovetail,    164-167,    204. 

Halving,    155-160,    203,   204. 

Heading,    151-152. 

Mortise-and-tenon,     58,    127,    160- 

164,    172. 
Joists,    201. 
Kerf,   10,  30,   62,   65. 
Key-pin  of  lock,    133. 
Kiln,   lumber,   44,   46. 
Knife,   61,   136,   139. 
Knife,    Sloyd,    61. 
Knob,  Plane,  70. 
Knock-down    furniture,    163. 
Knuckle  of  hinge,  131. 
Lac,   insect,   215. 

Seed,   216. 

Shell,    216. 

Stick,  216. 
Lacquer,    218. 
Ladle,    141. 
Landlooking,   7. 
Lath-machines,    39,    41. 
Laths,   39,    49,    201. 
Lay-out,   152,    154,    155,    156,    158,    159, 

160,    163,    165,    183,    191,    195,    203, 

204. 

Leather,    59,    200. 
Leaves  of  hinge,   132. 
Level,   Spirit,   116. 
Lever-cap,   70,  77. 
Lid   of  box,   188. 
Lighting  of  shop,   142. 
Live  rollers,  35. 
Loading  logs,  15. 
Lock,   mortise,    134. 

Rim,   133,   134. 
Lockers,    138,    142,    146,    147. 
Locks,    133,    134. 
Locomotive,  Geared,  26. 

Snow,    28. 

Boom-derrick,   25. 
Log-boom,    20,    21. 
Log-carriage,    34,    35,    36. 
Log-flipper,    34. 
Logging,   Chap.    I,    7-29. 
Log-kicker,    34. 


Log-slip,    34. 

Log-stop,    34. 

Logwood,    211,    212. 

Loss   of  tools,   144-146. 

Lumber,    48. 

Lumber  yard,   36,   38. 

Lumberman's    board    rule,    III. 

Lumber  mill,   32,   33. 

M    (1000    feet),    48,    49. 

Machine-screws,    127. 

Mahogany,    211. 

Mallet,    58,    96,    139. 

Marking-gage,   114-116,    136,   139,    203. 

Marking    tools,    113-117. 

Matching-plane,    80,    139. 

Maul,  10. 

Measurements,   203. 

Measuring-tools,    105-117. 

Measuring   wood,    13,    48,    49,    105-116. 

Mill-pond,    21,    32. 

Miter-box,    102,    137,    139,    194. 

Miter-clamp,     138,    141. 

Miter-square,    113,    137,    140. 

Molding-plane,    80. 

Monkey-wrench,    103,    138,    141. 

Mortise,    58,   160. 

Mortise-and-tenon. 

See    Joint,    Mortise-and-tenon. 
Mortise-chisel,    54,   55,    161. 
Mortise-gage,    116,   140,   161. 
Multiple    parts,    204. 
Muntin,   192,   193. 
Muslin,    200,    221. 
Nails,    123,   124. 

Flat-head,    124. 

Size  of,   124. 

Wire,   123. 

Wrought,    123. 
Nailset,  97,   138,   141. 
Nigger,  steam,   34,  35. 
Nippers,   103,   105,   138,   141. 
Octagonal    scale,    108. 
Oil,    65,    130,    221. 

Banana,    213,    216. 

Boiled,   209,   210,   222. 
Oiler,   137,  140. 
Oilstone,    58,    121,    137,   140. 
Ordering  of  lumber,  49. 
Paint,    220-221. 

Panel   construction,    164,   192-195,   205. 
Panel-iron,   127,   128. 
Paper,    Building,    201. 
Paring,    55,    57. 
Paring-chisel,    54. 
Peavey,    18. 
Peen   of  hammer,    95. 


INDEX. 


229 


Picture-frame,    167-169,    194,    205. 

Clamp,   167,   168. 

Vise,   100,  101,   167,  194. 
Pigments,   209. 
Pillow,  77. 
Pincers,   103,   105. 
Pinch-dog,    102,    103,    141,    170. 
Pintle  of  hinge,  131. 
Plane,    parts   of,    70. 

Bed   rock,   71,   75,   137,   139. 

Block,    77,    137,    139. 

Circular,    80.          +, 

Fore,   72,  137,   139. 

Jack,    71,    136,    138. 

Jointer,    72. 

Matching,   80,   139. 

Molding,    80. 

Oriental,   69. 

Rabbet,   79,    137,   139,   194. 

Router,   83,   139,   160. 

Scraper,    79,    139. 

Scratch,    79,    130. 

Scrub,   78. 

Smooth,   72,   75,   137,   139. 

Tongue-and-groove,    80. 

Universal,    81,    82. 
Plane-iron,   70,   77. 
Planes,    69-82. 
Planing,  Directions  for,   74-76,   78. 

Order    of,    72. 
Plate-rack,    185. 
Plates,  metal,   127. 
Plate,   wall,   201. 
Pliers,   103,   105,   138,   141. 
Plow,    Snow,    13. 
Plug-cutter,   84,   86,   126,   140. 
Points  in  saw-teeth,   63. 
Polish,    French,    217-218. 

Oil,   214. 

Varnish,    220. 

Wax,   214. 
Polishes,    214-220. 
Position   of  benches,   142. 
Posts,    corner,    201. 
Potash,    150. 

Potassium  bichromate,    130,    211,   212. 
Pounding  tools,    94-97. 
Preservation  of  lumber,   47. 

See  also  seasoning. 
Principles  of  joinery,  Chap.   IX,   203- 

208. 

Pumice  stone,  217. 
Quarter-sawing,  42,  43. 
Rabbet-plane,  79,  137,  139,  194. 
Raft,    Giant,    27,    29. 
Rafter-table,    110. 
Rafters,     121a,     201. 


Rail,  186,   193. 
Rail,   Drawer,   196. 
Railways,    logging,    22,    26. 
Rasp,    91. 

Ratchet-brace,   103,   105,   137. 
Reamer,    84,   87. 
Rebate.     See   Rabbet. 
Red,  Venetian,   210. 
Ribbon,  Wall,   201. 
Ridge-pole,    201. 
Rift-sawing,   41. 
Rip-saw,   63,  137,  139. 
Rivet-set,    141. 
Road,   Ice,    13,    14. 

Logging,    9,    13,    14. 

Monkeys   13,   15. 

Tote,    8. 

Rollers,   Dead,    36. 
Rollers,   Live,   35. 
Roll-ways,   16. 
Rossing  of  bark,   24. 
Router-plane,   83,   139,   160. 
Rule,   105,   106,   137,   139,   203. 
Running  foot,   49. 
Rust,   125. 

On   tools,   147. 
Sacking  the  rear,  16. 
Saddle   seat,    60,    199. 
Sandpaper,   93,    221. 
Saw,  62-68. 
Selvage   of  lock,   133. 
Saw,   Back,   65,   136,   138. 

Band,    30,    31,    32. 

Butting,    36. 

Circular,   30. 

Compass,   66,   139. 

Compression,  62. 

Coping,   139. 

Crosscut,   10,   64,   137,   139. 

Cut-off,    36,    39. 

Dovetail,    66,    137,    139. 

Gang,    30. 

Hack,   137,   141. 

Logging,   10,   23. 

Pulling,    10,    62,    67. 

Pushing,    62. 

Rip,  63,  137,  139. 

Tension,    62,   67. 

Turning,   67,   137,   139. 
Saw-carriage,   34,   35,   36. 
Sawdust,    39. 

Saw-filing  and   setting,   67. 
Saw-horse,  64,   65,   100. 
Sawing,  Directions   for,   64,   65. 
Saw-jointer,   68. 
Sawmill,   32,   33. 
Sawmilling,   Chap.    II,    30-44. 


230 


INDEX. 


Saw-set,   68. 

Saw-vise,    67,   68. 

Sawing  into  lengths,    11,    12,   24. 

Scaling-  logs,   13. 

Scrap-box,   187. 

Scraper,    76,   91,   137,   139. 

Scraper,   Veneer,   91,    92,   137,   139. 

Scraper-plane,    79,    139. 

Scraper   steel,    92,    137,    139. 

Scraping-  tools,   90-94. 

Scrap  pile,   41,   42. 

Scratch-awl,  116,   140. 

Scratch-plane,   79,   130. 

Screen-hinge,   131. 

Screw-box,   139. 

Screwdriver,    104,    106,   138,    140. 

Bit,  105,  106,  138  140. 
Screw-gag-e,  116,  117,  126. 
Screws,  125-127. 

Rule  for  using,   126. 

Sizes    of,    126. 
Scribing,  112. 
Scrub-plane,    78. 
Seasoning,   Chap.   Ill,  45-48. 

Air,   45. 

Hot-air,    46. 

Kiln,    46. 

Oil,   47. 

Water,  47. 
Set  of  saw,  G5,  67. 
Shank,   54. 
Sharpening  of  tools,   The,    54,   58,   59, 

60,    67,    76,    85,    86,    92-93,   117-121. 
Sharpening-tools,    117-121. 
Sheathing,   201. 
Shellac,   149,   215-218. 

Orange,   216. 

White,    216. 
Shelves,  185,   205. 
Khingles,    49,    201,    205. 
Shingle-machine,   39,   41. 
Shoe-pegs,    128. 
Shoulder  of  joint,   160. 
Shrinkage,    186,     188,     189,     191,     192, 

194,    205. 
Siding,    201. 
Sienna,    209. 
Sighting,    71,    75. 
Silex,    214. 
Sill,    201. 
Sizing,  130. 
Skidder,   steam,    25. 
Skidway,    9,    13,    24. 
Slab,  34,  35,  39. 
Slab-slasher,   39,   40. 
Slash-grain,   41,   42. 
Slash-sawing,    41. 


Sleigh   haul,   13,   15. 
Sliding  cut,    53,    56,    75,    78. 
Sliding    T    bevel,    113. 
Slipstone,    60,    121,    137,    140. 
Slip-tongue    carts,    22. 
Smooth-plane,    72,    137,    139. 
Snips,    141. 
Snow-locomotive,   28. 
Soap,  as  a  lubricant,   126. 

To    prevent    gluing,    130. 
Sole  of   Plane,    70. 
Sorting-jack,   21. 
Sorting-shed,    38. 
Spiriting  off,   217. 
Splash-dam,    20,   21. 
Splitting  tools,   51. 
Spokeshave,    82,    137,    139,    183. 
Stains,   209-213. 

Chemical,    211-213. 

Oil,    150,    209,    210. 

Spirit,   211. 

Water,    210,    211. 
Steel    square,    107-111,    137,    140. 
Steel   wool,    94,    211,    217,   221. 
Sticking,   45,    48. 
Stile,   193. 

Storing    of    lumber,    48. 
Stove,  Gas,  138,  141,  148. 
Stove-bolts,   127. 
Straight  cut,  53. 
Strength   of  joints,   206. 
Strike  of  lock,   133. 
Stringer,   196. 
Stropping,    59. 
Studding,    201. 
Superposition,    Method    of,    156,    158, 

159,   163,   166,   204. 
Survey  of  forest  land,   7. 
Swamper,   12. 
Sweep  of  brace,  103. 
Table-hinge,    131. 
Table   construction,    130,    164,    195. 

See   also   Table   Top. 
Table  top,  172,  175,  197. 
Taboret,   169,   170,   186. 
Tacks,  124. 

Tacks,   double-pointed,   102,   124. 
Tang,   54. 
Tank,   14. 

Taper  of  cutting  tools,   52. 
Tee-hinge,    131. 
Teeth  of  saw,  63. 
Tenon,  160,   206. 

See    also    Mortise    and    tenon. 

Joint,   Mortise  and   tenon. 
Tenon-saw,  65. 
Toe  of  Plane,  70,  71. 


INDEX. 


231 


Throat  of  Plane,   70. 

Tie-beams,   201. 

Timber,    48. 

Tonguing-and-grooving-plane,    80. 

Tool-grinder,   61,  120,  121,  137,  140. 

Tool-holder   for   grinding,   118-120. 

Tool-rack,   143,   144. 

Tools,    Chap.    IV,    pp.    51-122. 

Tools,   logging,   10. 

Traction   esgine,    28. 

Tools,    Loss    of,    144-146. 

Tractor,   28.  ^ 

Trammel-points,    114,   140. 

Transfer,   Lumber,   36,  37. 

Transportation    of    logs,    13,    15,    16ff, 

23. 

Travoy,    9. 
Tray,    60,   183. 
Triangle,   Blackboard,    141. 
Trimmer,   36,  38. 
Trimming  logs,   12. 
Tripoli,  121,  147. 
Trolley   for   logs,    25. 
Try-square,   112,   136,   139,   140,   203. 
Tumbler  of  lock,  133. 
Turning-saw,    67,    137,    139,    183. 
Turpentine,    209,    210,    214,    222. 
Tusk. 

See       Joint,       mortise-and-tenon, 

tusk. 

Twist-bit,    84,   85. 
Twist-drill,    84,   85,   138. 
Twist-drill-gage,    117. 
Umber,  209. 
Undercut,    206. 
Universal  plane,  81. 
Unjoined   pieces,    183,    184. 
Upholstering,    199-201. 
Valuation    survey,    7. 
Van,  Logging  camp,   9. 


Varnish,   149,  215-220. 

Copal,    218-220. 

Cremona,   218. 

Spirit,    215-218. 
Varnishing,    Process   of,   219. 
Vaseline,   147. 
Veining  tools.  140. 
Veneer-scraper,   91,   92,   137,  139. 
Vermilion,  210. 
Vise,   99,  138. 

Iron,   138,  141. 
Walnut,    210. 
Waney   boards,    36. 
Warping,   48. 
Washer-cutter,  87,  140. 
Waste,  cotton,  209,  221. 
Waste,  sawmill,   39. 
Waterproof  glue,   130. 
Water-stains,   210. 
Water-table,   201. 
Wax,   214. 
Webbing,   200. 
Wedge,    Plane,    69,    70. 
Wedge,    10,   51,    52,   128,   162. 

Action   51,   52. 
Whetting   tools,    58. 
Wind  in  board,  74. 
Winding  sticks,  74,  113. 
Window-sash,  194. 
W^ire   edge,    59. 
Wire-gage,    116,   117. 
Wooden    structures,    types    of,    Chap. 

VIII,  183-202. 
Working  edge,  72,  115. 
Working  face,  72,  115. 
Wrench,  103. 

See   also   Monkey-wrench. 
Yarding  logs,   24,   26,   27. 
Yard-stick,   138,   141. 
Yellow,  Chrome,  209. 


Books  on  the  Manual  Arts 

HANDWORK  IN  WOOD.     BY  WILLIAM  NOYES. 

A  handbook  for  teachers  and  a  textbook  for  normal  school  and 
college  students.  A  comprehensive  and  scholarly  treatise,  cover- 
ing logging,  sawmilling,  seasoning  and  measuring,  hand  tools, 
wood  fastenings,  equipment  and  care  of  the  shop,  the  common 
joints,  types  of  wood  structures,  principles  of  joinery,  and  wood 
finishing.  304  illustrations — excellent  pen  drawings  by  Anna 
Gausmann  Noyes.  Price,  $2.00. 

ESSENTIALS  OF  WOODWORKING.  BY  IRA  S.  GRIFFITH. 
A  textbook  written  especially  for  the  use  of  grammar  and  high 
school  students.  A  clear  and  comprehensive  treatment  of  wood- 
working tools,  materials,  and  processes,  to  supplement,  but  not  to 
take  the  place  of  the  instruction  given  by  the  teacher.  The  book 
does  not  contain  a  course  of  models;  it  may  be  used  with  any 
course.  It  is  illustrated  with  photographs  and  numerous  pen 
drawings  by  Edwin  V.  Lawrence.  Price,  $1.00. 

BEGINNING  WOODWORK.    At  Home  and  in  School. 

BY  CLINTON  S.  VANDEUSKN. 

A  full  and  clear  description  in  detail  of  the  fundamental  processes 
of  elementary  benchwork  in  wood.  This  description  is  given 
thru  directions  for  making  a  few  simple,  useful  articles,  suit- 
able either  for  school  or  home  problems.  The  book  contains 
more  than  one  hundred  original  sketches  and  ten  working  draw- 
ings by  Edwin  V.  Lawrence.  Price,  $1.00. 

WOODWORK  FOR  SCHOOLS  ON  SCIENTIFIC  LINES. 

BY  JAMES  THOMAS  BAILY  and  S.  POLLITT. 

The  American  edition  of  an  English  book  containing  120 
practical  problems,  many  of  which  have  been  designed  to  correlate 
mathematics  and  physical  science  with  manual  training.  Price, 
75  cents. 

WOOD  PATTERN-MAKING.     BY  HORACE  T.  PURFIELD. 

This  is  a  new  and  much  revised  edition  of  a  book  formerly 
published  by  the  author.  A  convenient  textbook  for  the  use  of 
high  school,  college  and  trade  school  classes  in  pattern-making. 
It  is  comprehensive  and  practical.  It  treats  of  the  principles  of 
molding,  core  making,  and  the  construction  of  the  various  types 
of  patterns.  Illustrated  with  about  150  pen  drawings  by  Edwin 
V.  Lawrence.  Price,  $1.25. 

PUBLISHED  BY 

The  Manual  Arts  Press,  Peoria,  Illinois 

We  can  supply  you  with  any  book  on  the  Manual  Arts 


Books  on  the  Manual  Arts 


PROBLEMS  IN  WOODWORKING.     BY  M.  W.  MURRAY. 

A  convenient  collection  of  good  problems  consisting  of  forty 
plates  bound  in  heavy  paper  covers  with  brass  fasteners.  Each 
plate  is  a  working  drawing,  or  problem  in  benchwork  that  has 
been  successfully  worked  out  by  boys  in  one  of  the  grades  from 
seven  to  nine  inclusive.  Price,  75  cents.  Board  covers,  20  cents 
extra. 

PROBLEMS  IN  FURNITURE  MAKING. 

BY  FRED  D.  CRAWSHAW. 

This  book  consists  of  32  plates  of  working  drawings  suitable 
for  use  in  grammar  and  high  schools  and  24  pages  of  text,  in- 
cluding chapters  on  design,  construction  and  finishes,  and  notes 
on  the  problems.  Price,  $1-00.  Board  covers,  20  cents  extra. 

PROBLEMS  IN  WOOD-TURNING. 

BY  FRED  D.  CRAWSHAW. 

In  the  first  place  this  is  a  book  of  problems — -25  plates  covering 
spindle,  face-plate,  and  chuck  turning.  In  the  second  place  it  is 
a  textbook  on  the  science  and  art  of  wood-turning  illustrated  by 
fifty  pen  sketches.  It  gives  the  mathematical  basis  for  the  cuts 
used  in  turning.  In  the  third  place  it  is  a  helpful  discussion  of 
the  principles  of  design  as  applied  to  objects  turned  in  wood.  It 
is  a  clear,  practical  and  suggestive  book  on  wood-turning.  Price 
80  cents.  Board  covers,  20  cents  extra. 

PROBLEMS  IN  MECHANICAL  DRAWING.  BY  CHARLES 
A.  BENNETT.  With  drawings  made  by  FRED  D.  CRAW- 
SHAW. 

This  book  consists  of  80  plates  and  a  few  explanatory  notes, 
and  is  bound  in  heavy  paper  covers  with  brass  fasteners.  Its 
purpose  is  to  furnish  teachers  of  classes  beginning  mechanical 
drawing  with  a  large  number  of  simple,  practical  problems.  These 
have  been  selected  with  reference  to  the  formation  of  good  habits 
in  technique,  the  interest  of  the  pupils,  and  the  subjects  generally 
included  in  a  grammar  and  first-year  high  school  course.  Each 
problem  given  is  unsolved  and  therefore  in  proper  form  to  hand  to 
the  pupil  for  solution.  Price,  $1.00.  Board  covers,  20  cents  extra. 

PUBLISHED   BY 

The  Manual   Arts  Press,  Peoria,  Illinois 

We  can  supply  you  with  any  book  on  the  Manual  Arts 


Books  on  the  Manual  Arts 


SELECTED  SHOP  PROBLEMS.     BY  GEORGE  A.  SEATON. 

A  collection  of  sixteen  problems  in  woodworking  made  to  meet 
the  needs  of  busy  teachers  of  manual  training.  Each  problem 
has  been  put  to  the  test  and  has  proven  satisfactory  to  the  teacher 
who  designed  it  and  the  pupil  who  made  it.  Price,  20  cents. 

COPING  SAW  WORK.     BY  BEN  W.  JOHNSON. 

Contains  working  drawings  and  suggestions  for  teaching  a 
course  of  work  in  thin  wood  that  is  full  of  fun  for  the  children, 
and  affords  ample  means  for  training  in  form  study,  construction, 
invention  and  careful  work.  Has  been  called  "applied  mechanics 
for  the  fourth  grade."  Price,  20  cents. 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  AND  FLYING  OF  KITES. 

BY  CHARLES  M.   MILLER. 

This  contains  seven  full-page  plates  of  drawings  of  kites  and 
fifteen  figures — over  forty  kites  shown.  Details  of  construction 
given;  a  kite  tournament  is  described.  Full  of  interesting  sug- 
gestions. Price,  20  cents. 

CLAY  WORK.     BY  KATHERINE  MORRIS  LESTER. 

This  book  has  been  written  by  a  grade  teacher  and  art  worker 
to  help  teachers  in  acquiringthe  technique  of  clay  working,  and 
to  give  them  suggestions  concerning  the  teaching  of  the  several 
types  of  clay  work  suited  to  pupils  in  the  elementary  schools. 
It  covers  the  study  of  natural  forms,  the  human  figure  in  relief, 
and  the  round,  animal  forms,  story  illustration,  architectural  orna- 
ment, tiles,  hand-built  pottery,  and  pottery  decoration.  The 
book  is  richly  illustrated  with  more  than  fifty  half-tone  and  line 
cuts  showing  processes,  designs,  and  the  work  of  children  from 
ten  to  twelve  years  of  age.  Price,  $1.00 

THE  WASH  METHOD  OF  HANDLING  WATER 
COLOUR.     BY  PRANK  FOREST  FREDERICK. 

A  brief,  clear,  comprehensive  text  printed  in  sepia  and  illus- 
trated with  wash  drawings  and  a  water-color  painting  by  the 
author.  Price,  50  cents. 

PUBLISHED  BY 

The  Manual  Arts  Press,  Peoria,  Illinois 

We  can  supply  you  with  any  book  on  the  Manual  Arts 


Books  on  the  Manual  Arts 


HANDWORK  INSTRUCTION  FOR  BOYS.    By  DR.  AL- 

WIN  PABST.     Translated  by  Bertha  Reed  Coffman. 

A  philosophical  and  historical  review  of  manual  training  for 
boys  and  a  discussion  of  the  systems  in  vogue  in  the  several 
European  countries  and  in  America,  by  the  director  of  the  nor- 
mal school  for  teachers  of  manual  training  at  Leipsic.  With 
plates  showing  typical  manual  training  workshops.  Price,  $1.00. 

HANDICRAFT  FOR  GIRLS.     BY  IDABELLE  MCGLAUFLIN. 

A  handbook  for  teachers,  detailing  a  five-years  course  in  sewing 
for  girls,  in  the  public  schools.  Chapters  on  stitches,  fibers,  and 
fabrics,  cloth  and  cardboard  construction,  basketry,  dress  in  its  re- 
lation to  art,  and  home  furnishing.  It  it  definite  enough  to  be 
thoroly  practical  and  elastic  enough  to  suit  the  varied  conditions 
in  rural,  village  or  city  schools.  Price,  $1.00 

SIMPLIFIED  MECHANICAL  PERSPECTIVE.    BY  FRANK 
FORREST  FREDERICK. 

A  book  of  simple  problems  covering  the  essentials  of  mechan- 
ical perspective.  It  is  planned  for  pupils  of  high  school  age  who 
have  already  received  some  elementary  training  in  mechanical 
drawing.  It  is  simple,  direct  and  practical.  Price,  75  cents. 

CLASSROOM  PRACTICE  IN  DESIGN.     BY  JAMES  PAR- 
TON  HANEY. 

A  concise  up-to-date,  richly  illustrated  brochure  on  the  teach- 
ing of  applied  design:  Price,  50  cents. 

MANUAL  TRAINING  MAGAZINE.      CHARLES  A.  BEN- 
NETT, Editor.    WILLIAM  T.  BAWDEN,  Managing-  Editor. 

Assisted  by  a  staff  of  associate  and  department  editors.  Illus- 
trated; published  bi-monthly.  Subscription  price,  $1.50  a  year 
single  copies,  35  cents.  To  foreign  countries,  including  Canada 
$1.75  a  year,  single  copies,  40  cents. 

PUBLISHED  BY 

The  Manual  Arts  Press,  Peoria,  Illinois 

We  can  supply  you  with  any  book  on  the  Manual  Arts 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 


LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below, 
or  on  the  date  to  which  renewed.  Renewals  only: 

Tel.  No.  642-3405 

Renewals  may  be  made  4  days  prior  to  date  due. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 

REC'DLD    MAR 51  ^' -HAM  5 7 
APR  2  2 1971  jf  j 


8  8 7-1     Q  » 


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